A Rapid Biodiversity
Assessment & Archaeological
Survey of the Fiji REDD+
Pilot Site:
Emalu Forest, Viti Levu
Editors: Marika V. Tuiwawa, Sarah Pene, Senilolia H. Tuiwawa
Compiled by the Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Pacific, for the Forestry
Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Republic of the Fiji Islands; and
SPC/GIZ ‘Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region’ Programme
August 2013
Table of Contents
Organisational Profiles & Authors ..................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 3
Executive Summary .......................................................................................................... 4
Maps ................................................................................................................................ 6
Photographs ................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 2: Flora, Vegetation & Ecology.......................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 3: Herpetofauna............................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 4: Avifauna ...................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 5: Terrestrial Insects ......................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER 6: Freshwater Fishes ........................................................................................ 64
CHAPTER 7: Freshwater Macroinvertebrates ................................................................... 69
CHAPTER 8: Invasive Species ........................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER 9: Archaeological Survey .................................................................................. 87
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 97
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................159
i
List of Maps
Map 1: Location of the Emalu study area, Viti Levu. ............................................................................. 6
Map 2: Location of certain focal plant species within Emalu ................................................................. 7
Map 3: Principal vegetation types within Emalu .................................................................................... 8
Map 4: Principal vegetation types and habitats within Emalu ................................................................ 9
Map 5: Location of herpetofauna survey points within Emalu ............................................................. 10
Map 6: Location of the avifauna survey points and 59 point count stations within Emalu .................. 11
Map 7: Location of the focal avifauna species within Emalu ............................................................... 12
Map 8: Location of the focal terrestrial insect species within Emalu ................................................... 13
Map 9: Location of freshwater fish sampling sites within Emalu ......................................................... 14
Map 10: Location of macroinvertebrate sampling stations within Emalu............................................. 15
Map 11: Location of rodent trapping transects around Tovatova basecamp ......................................... 16
Map 12: Location of cultural sites within Emalu .................................................................................. 17
Map 13: Location of six extensive old settlement sites within the Mavuvu catchment ........................ 18
ii
List of Photographs
Fig. 1 Leafy branches of the critically endangered podocarp, Acmopyle sahniana (SHT) .................... 19
Fig. 2 Fruit of the vulnerable endemic flowering plant, Degeneria vitiensis (SHT) ............................... 19
Fig. 3 Flower of the relic flowering plant family Degeneriaceae, Degeneria vitiensis (SHT) ................. 19
Fig. 4 The rare orchid Macodes cf. petola (MT) .................................................................................... 19
Fig. 5 The rare orchid Nervilia cf. punctata, in the lowland rainforest of Tovatova catchment (SHT) . 19
Fig. 6 Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile on the banks of Nasa River (SHT)................................. 19
Fig. 7 Palm tree Metroxylon vitiense (MT) ............................................................................................ 20
Fig. 8 Palm tree Metroxylon vitiense crown with apical infructescence (MT) ...................................... 20
Fig. 9 Habit and infructescence of the threatened palm, Cyphosperma tanga, found in upland slope
forest of Waikarakarawa catchment (SHT) ........................................................................................... 20
Fig. 10 Close up view of Cyphosperma tanga infructescence (SHT) ..................................................... 20
Fig. 11 Villagers from Naqarawai and Draubuta assist with the processing of bryophytes (SHT) ........ 20
Fig. 12 Airing out live specimens of lichens and bryophytes in the field (SHT)..................................... 20
Fig. 13 A native bronze-headed skink, Emoia parkerii, locally known as moko sari (NT) ..................... 21
Fig. 14 Fiji’s endemic tree frog, Platymantis vitiensis, found within the Waikarakarawa catchment
(SHT) ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Fig. 15 An endemic skink toed gecko, Nactus pelagicus, locally known as moko (NT) ......................... 21
Fig. 16 The native gecko, Gehyra vorax, (boliti) camouflaged on tree bark (NT).................................. 21
Fig. 17 Habitat of the long legged warbler, Trichocichla rufa rufa, currently listed on the IUCN Red List
as Endangered (AN) ............................................................................................................................... 21
Fig. 18 The long legged warbler, found to be common in the upland undisturbed riparian vegetation
(AN)........................................................................................................................................................ 21
Fig. 19 The collared lorry, Phigys solitarius, found in the Emalu forest (SPRH) .................................... 22
Fig. 20 A male golden dove, Ptilinopus luteovirens, found in the Emalu forest (SPRH) ........................ 22
Fig. 21 Samoan flying-fox (beka lulu, beka ni siga) Pteropus samoensis, a Near Threatened species on
the IUCN Red List, quite common in the general vicinity of Emalu (AN) .............................................. 22
Fig. 22 Insular flying fox (beka), Pteropus tonganus a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List,
quite common in the upper Mavuvu catchment (AN) .......................................................................... 22
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Fig. 23 Raiateana knowlesi (nanai), an endemic and rare cicada (SPRH) ............................................. 22
Fig. 24 Local guide from Draubuta assisting with the sampling of Winkler bags (AL) .......................... 22
Fig. 25 Leaf litter sampling with Winkler bags (AL) ............................................................................... 23
Fig. 26 Common damselfly, Nesobasis angolicolis, endemic to Fiji (AL) ............................................... 23
Fig. 27 The endemic butterfly, Hypolimnas inopinata, resting on a fern (AL) ...................................... 23
Fig. 28 Larva of H. inopinata on the leaves of the shrub host plant, Elatostema nemorosum (AL)...... 23
Fig. 29 The endemic stick insect, Nisyrus spinulousus, on a bark of a tree (AL).................................... 23
Fig. 30 Freshwater eels, Anguilla spp., Nasa stream in the Mavuvu catchment (LC) ........................... 23
Fig. 31 Holotype illustration of Lairdina hopletupus (Fowler, 1953) ..................................................... 24
Fig. 32 Amphidromous goby, Sicyopus zosterophorum, upper Nasa stream (LC) ................................ 24
Fig. 33 Jungle perch, Kuhlia rupestris, found within mid-Mavuvu stream (LC) ..................................... 24
Fig. 34 Sukasuka ni ika droka- a natural barrier to fish migration along the mid-Mavuvu stream (LC) 24
Fig. 35 Nasa Creek, upstream from base camp, an important habitat for fish sampling (LC) .............. 24
Fig. 36 Wainirovurovu Creek, below waterfall, an important habitat for fish sampling (LC) ............... 24
Fig. 37 Upper Wainirovurovu Creek (BR) .............................................................................................. 25
Fig. 38 Snorkeling in mid Mavuvu Creek, below the waterfall (BR) ...................................................... 25
Fig. 39 Nasa Creek (LC) .......................................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 40 Wainirovurovu tributary downstream (LC)................................................................................ 25
Fig. 41 Wainirovurovu tributary above waterfall (BR) .......................................................................... 25
Fig. 42 Wainasoba/Mid Mavuvu (BR) .................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 43 Waikarakarawa Creek (BR) ........................................................................................................ 26
Fig. 44 Qalibovitu Creek (BR) ................................................................................................................. 26
Fig. 45 Endemic mayfly Pseudocloeon sp. B (BR) .................................................................................. 26
Fig. 46 Endemic mayfly Pseudocloeon sp. B (LC) ................................................................................... 26
Fig. 47 Endemic mayfly Cloeon sp. A (BR) ............................................................................................. 26
Fig. 48 Endemic mayfly Cloeon sp. B (BR).............................................................................................. 26
Fig. 49 Damselfly nymph Nesobasis sp. “orangish” (BR) ....................................................................... 26
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Fig. 50 Damselfly nymph Nesobasis sp. “dark green” (BR) ................................................................... 26
Fig. 51 Caddisfly larva Apsilochorema sp. “light green” (BR) ................................................................ 26
Fig. 52 Caddisfly larva Hydrobiosis sp. “pinkish” (BR) ........................................................................... 26
Fig. 53 Caddisfly larva Hydrobiosis sp. “green” (BR) ............................................................................. 26
Fig. 54 Caddisfly larvae [Trichoptera] Chimarra sp. (BR) ....................................................................... 27
Fig. 55 Nematode worm, unknown species (BR) .................................................................................. 27
Fig. 56 Cranefly larvae [Tipulidae], Tipula sp. (BR) ................................................................................ 27
Fig. 57 Rissooidean snails Fluviopupa spp., under compound microscope (BR)................................... 27
Fig. 58 Rissooidean snails Fluviopupa spp., actual size (BR).................................................................. 27
Fig. 59 Nematode worm, under compound microscope (BR)............................................................... 27
Fig. 60 Unknown species of moth (larva), actual size (BR) .................................................................... 27
Fig. 61 Unknown species of moth (larva), under compound microscope (BR) ..................................... 27
Fig. 62 Juvenile black rat caught by guide Aporosa Maya Jnr, at about 650m altitude (IR) ................. 27
Fig. 63 Horses and guides crossing the Waitotolu Creek in the Waikarakarawa catchment (SP) ........ 27
Fig. 64 Cane toad (Bufo marinus) found in the upper Mavuvu River catchment (SK) .......................... 28
Fig. 65 Piper aduncum, Mikania micrantha and Dissotis rotundifolia on the bank of a small creek (SP)
............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Fig. 66 Illustration of a burekalou in the highlands of Viti Levu (Williams and Calvert, 1858). ............ 28
Fig. 67 Sketch of a nanaga, or sacred stone enclosure of Wainimala by Leslie J. Walker (Fison, 1885)28
Fig. 68 Preserved stone alignment visible on mount at site M28-0004 (SK) ........................................ 28
Fig. 69 Possible temple mound at site M28-0008 (SK).......................................................................... 28
Fig. 70 Pottery vessel or Saqaniwai discovered on mound at site M28-0014 (SK) ............................... 29
Fig. 71 Pottery vessel discovered upon house mound at site M28-0014 (SK) ...................................... 29
Fig. 72 Pottery sherds found at site M28-0026 (SK).............................................................................. 29
Fig. 73 Ancestral passageway that leads to main stream at site M28-0026 (SK).................................. 29
Fig. 74 Stone alignment visible on mound at site M28-0028 (SK) ........................................................ 29
Fig. 75 View of agricultural terrace platforms at site M28-0013 (SK) ................................................... 29
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Fig. 76 Ditch causeway at site M28-0017 (SK) ...................................................................................... 30
Fig. 77 Raised mound with stone alignment at site M28-0026 (SK) ..................................................... 30
Fig. 78 Local guide pointing towards settlement platform at site M28-0017 (SK) ............................... 30
Fig. 79 View of settlement platform with terrace platform along the base at site M28-0017 (SK)...... 30
Fig. 80 Pottery sherds at site M28-0018 (SK) ........................................................................................ 30
Fig. 81 Ditch feature situated at site M28-0018 (SK) ............................................................................ 30
Fig. 82 Complete traditional pottery vessel with earthen rim cover at site M28-0023 (SK) ................ 30
Fig. 83 Tobu ni nanai - sacred pool (SK) ................................................................................................ 30
Fig. 84 Degraded terrace due to erosion processes at site M28-0010 (SK) .......................................... 31
Fig. 85 Metallic pot at site M28-0012 (SK) ............................................................................................ 31
Fig. 86 Raised earthen mound at site M28-0011 (SK) ........................................................................... 31
Fig. 87 Stone alignment of a house mound at site M28-0009 (SK) ....................................................... 31
Fig. 88 Rim sherd discovered at site M28-0020 (SK) ............................................................................. 31
Fig. 89 Displaced stones of house mounds generated by wild pig inhabitation and erosion processess
at site M28-0022 (SK) ............................................................................................................................ 31
Fig. 90 Displaced stones of house mounds generated by wild pig inhabitation and erosion processess
at site M28-0022 (SK) ............................................................................................................................ 32
Fig. 91 Visible stone alignment of house mound at site M28-0024 (SK) .............................................. 32
Fig. 92 Tobu ni sili - sacred pool (SK) ..................................................................................................... 32
Fig. 93 Vatu ni veiyalayala –Land boundary (SK) ................................................................................... 32
Fig. 94 Raised mound with stone alignment at site M28-0019 (SK) ..................................................... 32
Fig. 95 Sakiusa Kataiwai and guide in front of a fortification structure at site M28-0066 (SK) ............ 32
Fig. 96 Ruins of the stone wall at site M28-0059 (SK) ........................................................................... 33
Fig. 97 Rock shelter and camp site for the Archaeology team at site M28-0069 (SK) .......................... 33
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List of Appendices
Appendix 1. Species checklist of the non-vascular flora and lichens .............................................. 97
Appendix 2. Annotated checklist of the vascular flora of Emalu..................................................103
Appendix 3. Summary statistics of vegetation community structure assessment plots .............. 116
Appendix 4. Description of forest and non-forest habitat types .................................................. 123
Appendix 5. Herpetofauna suvey sites locations and sampling methods..................................... 125
Appendix 6. Conservation status of herpetofauna species known from Viti Levu ....................... 127
Appendix 7. Avifauna species checklist, distribution and abundance .......................................... 128
Appendix 8. Location of point count stations, habitat and birds recorded .................................. 130
Appendix 9. Focal avifauna species recorded within Emalu ......................................................... 133
Appendix 10.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Tovatova catchment ............... 134
Appendix 11.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Waikarakarawa catchment ..... 137
Appendix 12.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Mavuvu catchment ................. 140
Appendix 13.
Species checklist of freshwater fish in the upper Sigatoka River tributaries........ 141
Appendix 14.
Water quality parametres at freshwater fish sampling stations .......................... 143
Appendix 15.
Location and descriptions of macroinvertebrate sampling stations .................... 144
Appendix 16.
Physicochemical parameters of macroinvertebrate sampling stations ............... 145
Appendix 17.
Habitat and riparian characteristics of macroinvertebrate sampling stations ..... 146
Appendix 18.
Abundance of freshwater macroinvertebrates collected with Surber sampling . 147
Appendix 19.
Abundance of freshwater macroinvertebrates collected opportunistically......... 149
Appendix 20.
Checklist of invasive and potentially invasive animals ......................................... 152
Appendix 21.
Locations of rodent transects in Tovatova catchment ......................................... 153
Appendix 22.
Record of pigs (Sus scrofa) caught ........................................................................ 153
Appendix 23.
Checklist of invasive and potentially invasive plants ............................................ 154
Appendix 24.
Summary descriptions and locations of cultural heritage sites ............................ 156
vii
ORGANISATIONAL PROFILES & AUTHORS
Institute of Applied Sciences (University of the South Pacific)
The Institute of Applied Sciences (IAS) was established in 1977 as part of the University of the South
Pacific. The Institute operates as a consulting body within the university, applying the professional
and academic expertise of its staff as required by government, NGO or private projects in Fiji and the
Pacific region. IAS operates through six thematic units; the South Pacific Regional Herbarium, the
Environment Unit, the Quality Control Unit, the Drug Discovery Unit, the Analytical Unit and the
Food Unit. This survey was coordinated and headed by the South Pacific Regional Herbarium.
South Pacific Regional Herbarium
The South Pacific Regional Herbarium (SPRH) is the focal point for the study of taxonomy,
conservation and ecology of plants in the Pacific. The collection of the SPRH includes over 50, 000
vascular plant specimens from Fiji and around the Pacific, as well as a wet collection of plant parts,
bryophytes and algae. As a member of an international network of herbaria, the SPRH participates in
programs to maintain collections of botanical plants specimens for study by local and international
botanists. More recently it has extended its collection to include those of other taxa to include insects,
freshwater invertebrates and vertebrates, reptiles and amphibians, birds and native mammals.
South Pacific Regional Herbarium
Institute of Applied Sciences,
University of the South Pacific,
Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji
www.usp.ac.fj/herbarium
Marika V. Tuiwawa
Herbarium Curator & Survey Leader
tuiwawa_m@usp.ac.fj
Alivereti Naikatini
Chapter 4: Avifauna
naikatini_a@usp.ac.fj
Senilolia H. Tuiwawa
Chapter 2: Flora, Vegetation & Ecology
tuiwawa_s@usp.ac.fj
Sarah Pene
Chapter 8: Invasive Species
sarah.pene@usp.ac.fj
Hilda Waqa-Sakiti
Chapter 5: Entomology
hilda.sakitiwaqa@usp.ac.fj
Lekima Copeland
Chapter 6: Freshwater Fishes
lekima.copeland@gmail.com
Environment Unit
The Environment Unit of the Institute of Applied Science conducts environmental impact assessments
and monitoring of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity and water quality. The Environment Unit also
works with communities to assist them in the development and implementation of resource
management plans.
Environment Unit
Institute of Applied Sciences,
University of the South Pacific,
Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji
1
www.usp.ac.fj/environmentunit
Hans Wendt
GIS & mapping
karlwendt.hans@gmail.com
Bindiya Rashni
Chapter 7: Freshwater Macroinvertebrates
bindiya.rashni@gmail.com
Fiji Museum
The Fiji Museum is a statutory body with the aim of identifying, protecting and conserving
archaeological and cultural heritage for current and future generations. The Fiji Museum’s collection
includes archaeological material dating back 3,700 years and cultural objects representing Fiji's
indigenous inhabitants as well as other communities that have settled in the island group over the
past two centuries.
The Fiji Museum
Thurston Gardens, Suva, Fiji
www.fijimuseum.org.fj
Elia Nakoro
Chapter 9: Archaeological Survey
elia.nakoro@gmail.com
Sakiusa Kataiwai
Chapter 9: Archaeological Survey
sakiusa.kataiwai@gmail.com
NatureFiji-MareqetiViti
NatureFiji-MareqetiViti is the working arm of the Fiji Nature Conservation Trust, a non-profit, nongovernment, non-political charitable trust. NatureFiji-MareqetiViti's mission is to enhance biodiversity
and habitat conservation, endangered species protection and sustainable use of natural resources of
the Fiji Islands through the promotion of collaborative conservation action, awareness raising,
education, research, and biodiversity information exchange.
NatureFiji-MareqetiViti
14 Hamilton-Beattie St., Suva, Fiji
www.naturefiji.org
Nunia Thomas
Chapter 3: Herpetofauna
nuniat@naturefiji.org
Conservation International (Fiji)
Conservation International (Fiji) is an international non-profit environmental organization. Its mission
is to build upon a strong foundation of science, partnership and field demonstration, to empower
societies to responsibly and sustainably care for nature for the well-being of humanity. Conservation
International operates in Fiji in partnership with The National Trust of Fiji.
Conservation International, Pacific Islands Program
3 Ma'afu St., Suva, Fiji
www.conservation.org
2
Isaac Rounds
Chapter 8: Invasive species
irounds@conservation.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The survey work described in this report would not have been possible without the
support and cooperation given by the elders and landowners of Draubuta, Nakoro,
Navitilevu, Naqarawai, Saliadrau and Naraiyawa villages.
The authors would also like to thank the following people for their technical
expertise in the field: Senivalati Vido, Salaseini Bureni and Panapasa Tubuitamana of
the Fiji Department of Forestry; Apaitia Liga, Siteri Tikoca, Mereia Katafono,
Tokasaya Cakacaka and Manoa Maiwaqa of the SPRH.
The work of the field guides; Waisale Lasekula, Kaminieli Tauininukuilau, Lepani
Kainailega, Jovilisi Mocetabua, Vetaia Mocetabua, Avisai Draunivadra, Avorosa
Maya, Aporosa Maya Jnr., Asaeli Navale, Netani Ganitoga, Napolioni Suguvanua,
Semesa Banuve, Samuela Nasalo, Netani Ganitoga, Sireli Marua, and Lemeki Toutou
is also gratefully acknowledged.
Bindiya Rashni would especially like to thank Dr Alison Haynes, Honorary Fellow at
the Institute of Applied Science, for verifying the identifications from the
macroinvertebrate survey.
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The land encompassed by the mataqali Emalu in the province of Navosa has been
selected as the pilot site for the Fiji REDD+ programme. A survey to assess the
biodiversity of the area and document its cultural heritage sites was carried out by a
team of specialists from USP’s Institute of Applied Science (the South Pacific
Regional Herbarium and the Environment Unit), the Fiji Museum, NatureFijiMareqetiViti and Conservation International. The expedition was implemented in
two phases; in July 2012 and March 2013.
Flora, Vegetation and Ecology
A total of 707 plant taxa were recorded for Emalu, including 286 bryophytes and
lichens, 375 angiosperms, nine gymnosperms, and 35 ferns and fern allies.
Altogether, the vascular and non-vascular taxa recorded from the Emalu site
spanned 182 families and 391 genera. Over a third (39%) of the vascular plant flora
recorded are endemic to Fiji, including 160 species of flowering plants, two fern and
fern allies, and two gymnosperms. Ten taxa were encountered that are important
focal species due to their rarity, botanical significance, very recent discovery in Fiji
and inclusion in the IUCN Red List. Five principal vegetation types were identified;
lowland rainforest, upland rainforest, cloud forest, dry forest and talasiga.
Herpetofauna
Six species of herpetofauna: three endemic, two native and one invasive were
captured over 22 man-hours of diurnal survey, 63 hours of sticky tape trapping and
nine man-hours of nocturnal surveys. This survey has documented the first records
of herpetofauna in this area and indicates a similar herpetofauna habitat to those
typically observed in other parts of Viti Levu. The endemic Fiji tree frog (Platymantis
vitiensis) was encountered in the area and is possibly the western-most record of the
occurrence of this species in Fiji.
Avifauna
A total of 35 species of birds were recorded during the survey, which included 25
endemic species and one exotic species. Two species of bats were also recorded
during the surveys. Ten focal species were identified (eight bird species and two bat
species). The bird diversity of Emalu is comparable to the four Important Bird Areas
on Viti Levu and ranks even higher in terms of bird density.
Terrestrial Insects
The target taxa Coleoptera (beetles) recorded 26 families in total and there was also a
high abundance of the family Formicidae (ants). These taxa provide critical
ecosystem services in forests systems such as soil processing, decomposition,
herbivory, pollination and seed dispersal. Insects of conservation value recorded
from Emalu included: Hypolimnas inopinata (a rare and endemic butterfly), Nysirus
spinulosus and Cotylosoma dipneusticum (rare and endemic stick insects) and Raiateana
4
knowlesi (the rare and endemic cicada). These findings suggest that the Emalu area is
pristine and an important site for rare insects on Viti Levu.
Freshwater Fish
A total of ten species of fish from six families were recorded from the study area.
Three species of gobies (Awaous guamensis, Sicyopus zosterophorum, Sicyopterus
lagocephalus), two species of eels from the family Anguillidae (Anguilla marmorata and
Anguilla megastoma), and the freshwater snake eel from the family Opicthidae
(Lamnostoma kampeni) were collected in the area. The Mavuvu mid reach had an
exceptionally high abundance and biomass of jungle perch Kuhlia rupestris when
compared to other streams in Fiji. No endemic species were observed or caught
during this survey. Around areas of human habitation there is evidence of the
removal of riparian buffer zones as well as unrestricted livestock access to waterways
which, coupled with uncontrolled slash and burn activities has exacerbated
environmental degradation in these areas. The use of traditional fish poison (Derris
roots) is also a common problem seen throughout the survey sites.
Freshwater Macroinvertebrates
A total of 76 freshwater macroinvertebrate taxa were identified from the 16,370
specimens collected in the three catchments of the Emalu region. The highly diverse
freshwater macroinvertebrate community of Emalu included a high proportion of
endemic taxa (75%), with insects being the most commonly occurring group. A total
of 14 macroinvertebrate taxa were selected as potential bioindicators. The high rate of
endemism, as well as the large number of species with large populations, is
indicative of the intactness of both the stream system and the surrounding forest.
Invasive Species
A total of 26 invasive plants and eleven invasive animals were recorded in the study
area, thirteen of which are listed in the 100 most invasive species in the world.
Generally, the occurrence and abundance of invasive was associated with proximity
to human habitation and to disturbed areas such as tracks, temporary campsites and
cultivated areas. The invasive plant species were generally low in abundance, with
the exception of Piper aduncum which was locally common, and Clidemia hirta and
Mikania micrantha which were both widespread.
Archaeological Survey
The land belonging to the mataqali Emalu is rich in historical and cultural sites that
have never been documented until this survey. A total of 77 sites of historical and
cultural significance were documented, including old village sites, hill fortifications,
pottery sites, agricultural terraces, sacred pools, house mounds and fortification
trenches. Generally, the archaeological finds during this survey have considerable
cultural value to the local community as well as at national level.
5
MAPS
6
Map 1: Location of the Emalu study area, Viti Levu.
7
Map 2: Location of certain focal plant species within Emalu
8
Map 3: Principal vegetation types within Emalu
9
Map 4: Principal vegetation types and habitats within Emalu
10
Map 5: Location of herpetofauna survey points within Emalu
11
Map 6: Location of the avifauna survey points and 59 point count stations within Emalu
12
Map 7: Location of the focal avifauna species within Emalu
13
Map 8: Location of the focal terrestrial insect species within Emalu
14
Map 9: Location of freshwater fish sampling sites within Emalu
15
Map 10: Location of macroinvertebrate sampling stations within Emalu
16
Map 11: Location of rodent trapping transects around Tovatova basecamp
17
Map 12: Location of cultural sites within Emalu
M28-0071
M28-0055
M28-0065
M28-0070
18
M28-0066
M28-0068
Map 13: Location of six extensive old settlement sites within the Mavuvu catchment
PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographers initials are indicated in the captions: AN=Alivereti Naikatini, AL=Apaitia Liga, BR=Bindiya Rashni, EN=Elia
Nakoro, IR=Isaac Rounds, LC=Lekima Copeland, MT=Marika Tuiwawa, NT=Nunia Thomas, SK=Sakiusa Kataiwai,
SP=Sarah Pene, SHT=Senilolia H. Tuiwawa, SPRH=South Pacific Regional Herbarium
Fig. 1 Leafy branches of the critically endangered
podocarp, Acmopyle sahniana (SHT)
Fig. 2 Fruit of the vulnerable endemic flowering plant,
Degeneria vitiensis (SHT)
Fig. 3 Flower of the relic flowering plant family
Degeneriaceae, Degeneria vitiensis (SHT)
Fig. 4 The rare orchid Macodes cf. petola (MT)
Fig. 5 The rare orchid Nervilia cf. punctata, in the
lowland rainforest of Tovatova catchment (SHT)
Fig. 6 Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile on the
banks of Nasa River (SHT)
19
Fig. 7 Palm tree Metroxylon vitiense (MT)
Fig. 8 Palm tree Metroxylon vitiense crown with apical
infructescence (MT)
Fig. 9 Habit and infructescence of the threatened
palm, Cyphosperma tanga, found in upland slope
forest of Waikarakarawa catchment (SHT)
Fig. 10 Close up view of Cyphosperma tanga
infructescence (SHT)
Fig. 11 Villagers from Naqarawai and Draubuta assist
with the processing of bryophytes (SHT)
Fig. 12 Airing out live specimens of lichens and
bryophytes in the field (SHT)
20
Fig. 13 A native bronze-headed skink, Emoia parkerii,
locally known as moko sari (NT)
Fig. 14 Fiji’s endemic tree frog, Platymantis vitiensis,
found within the Waikarakarawa catchment (SHT)
Fig. 15 An endemic skink toed gecko, Nactus
pelagicus, locally known as moko (NT)
Fig. 16 The native gecko, Gehyra vorax, (boliti)
camouflaged on tree bark (NT)
Fig. 17 Habitat of the long legged warbler, Trichocichla
rufa rufa, currently listed on the IUCN Red List as
Endangered (AN)
Fig. 18 The long legged warbler, found to be common
in the upland undisturbed riparian vegetation (AN)
21
Fig. 19 The collared lorry, Phigys solitarius, found in
the Emalu forest (SPRH)
Fig. 20 A male golden dove, Ptilinopus luteovirens,
found in the Emalu forest (SPRH)
Fig. 21 Samoan flying-fox (beka lulu, beka ni siga)
Pteropus samoensis, a Near Threatened species on
the IUCN Red List, quite common in the general
vicinity of Emalu (AN)
Fig. 22 Insular flying fox (beka), Pteropus tonganus a
species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, quite
common in the upper Mavuvu catchment (AN)
Fig. 23 Raiateana knowlesi (nanai), an endemic and
rare cicada (SPRH)
Fig. 24 Local guide from Draubuta assisting with the
sampling of Winkler bags (AL)
22
Fig. 25 Leaf litter sampling with Winkler bags (AL)
Fig. 26 Common damselfly, Nesobasis angolicolis,
endemic to Fiji (AL)
Fig. 27 The endemic butterfly, Hypolimnas inopinata,
resting on a fern (AL)
Fig. 28 Larva of H. inopinata on the leaves of the shrub
host plant, Elatostema nemorosum (AL)
Fig. 29 The endemic stick insect, Nisyrus spinulousus,
on a bark of a tree (AL)
Fig. 30 Freshwater eels, Anguilla spp., Nasa stream in
the Mavuvu catchment (LC)
23
Fig. 31 Holotype illustration of Lairdina hopletupus
(Fowler, 1953)
Fig. 32 Amphidromous goby, Sicyopus zosterophorum,
upper Nasa stream (LC)
Fig. 33 Jungle perch, Kuhlia rupestris, found within
mid-Mavuvu stream (LC)
Fig. 34 Sukasuka ni ika droka- a natural barrier to fish
migration along the mid-Mavuvu stream (LC)
Fig. 35 Nasa Creek, upstream from base camp, an
important habitat for fish sampling (LC)
Fig. 36 Wainirovurovu Creek, below waterfall, an
important habitat for fish sampling (LC)
24
Fig. 37 Upper Wainirovurovu Creek (BR)
Fig. 38 Snorkeling in mid Mavuvu Creek, below the
waterfall (BR)
Fig. 39 Nasa Creek (LC)
Fig. 40 Wainirovurovu tributary downstream (LC)
Fig. 41 Wainirovurovu tributary above waterfall (BR)
Fig. 42 Wainasoba/Mid Mavuvu (BR)
25
Fig. 43 Waikarakarawa Creek (BR)
Fig.
45
Endemic
Pseudocloeon sp.B (BR)
Fig. 44 Qalibovitu Creek (BR)
mayfly
Fig. 46 Endemic mayfly
Pseudocloeon sp. B (LC)
Fig. 47 Endemic mayfly Cloeon sp. A
(BR)
Fig. 48 Endemic mayfly Cloeon
sp. B (BR)
Fig. 49 Damselfly nymph
Nesobasis sp. “orangish” (BR)
Fig. 50 Damselfly nymph Nesobasis
sp. “dark green” (BR)
Fig.
51
Caddisfly
larva
Apsilochorema sp. “light green”
(BR)
Fig.
52
Caddisfly
larva
Hydrobiosis sp. “pinkish” (BR)
Fig. 53 Caddisfly larva Hydrobiosis sp.
“green” (BR)
26
Fig.
54
Caddisfly
larvae
[Trichoptera] Chimarra sp. (BR)
Fig. 55 Nematode
unknown species (BR)
worm,
Fig. 56 Cranefly larvae [Tipulidae],
Tipula sp. (BR)
Fig. 57 Rissooidean snails
Fluviopupa spp., under compound
microscope (BR)
Fig. 58 Rissooidean snails
Fluviopupa spp., actual size (BR)
Fig. 59 Nematode worm, under
compound microscope (BR)
Fig. 60 Unknown species of moth (larva), actual
size (BR)
Fig. 61 Unknown species of moth (larva), under compound
microscope (BR)
Fig. 62 Juvenile black rat caught by guide
Aporosa Maya Jnr, at about 650m altitude (IR)
Fig. 63 Horses and guides crossing the Waitotolu Creek in
the Waikarakarawa catchment (SP)
27
Fig. 64 Cane toad (Bufo marinus) found in the
upper Mavuvu River catchment (SK)
Fig. 65 Piper aduncum, Mikania micrantha and Dissotis
rotundifolia on the bank of a small creek (SP)
Fig. 66 Illustration of a burekalou in the highlands
of Viti Levu (Williams and Calvert, 1858).
Fig. 67 Sketch of a nanaga, or sacred stone enclosure of
Wainimala by Leslie J. Walker (Fison, 1885)
Fig. 68 Preserved stone alignment visible on
mount at site M28-0004 (SK)
Fig. 69 Possible temple mound at site M28-0008 (SK)
28
Fig. 70 Pottery vessel or Saqaniwai discovered
on mound at site M28-0014 (SK)
Fig. 71 Pottery vessel discovered upon house mound at site
M28-0014 (SK)
Fig. 72 Pottery sherds found at site M28-0026
(SK)
Fig. 73 Ancestral passageway that leads to main stream at
site M28-0026 (SK)
Fig. 74 Stone alignment visible on mound at site
M28-0028 (SK)
Fig. 75 View of agricultural terrace platforms at site M280013 (SK)
29
Fig. 76 Ditch causeway at site M28-0017 (SK)
Fig. 77 Raised mound with stone alignment at site M280026 (SK)
Fig. 78 Local guide pointing towards settlement
platform at site M28-0017 (SK)
Fig. 79 View of settlement platform with terrace platform
along the base at site M28-0017 (SK)
Fig. 80 Pottery sherds at site M28-0018 (SK)
Fig. 81 Ditch feature situated at site M28-0018 (SK)
Fig. 82 Complete traditional pottery vessel with
earthen rim cover at site M28-0023 (SK)
Fig. 83 Tobu ni nanai - sacred pool (SK)
30
Fig. 84 Degraded terrace due to erosion
processes at site M28-0010 (SK)
Fig. 85 Metallic pot at site M28-0012 (SK)
Fig. 86 Raised earthen mound at site M28-0011
(SK)
Fig. 87 Stone alignment of a house mound at site M28-0009
(SK)
Fig. 88 Rim sherd discovered at site M28-0020
(SK)
Fig. 89 Displaced stones of house mounds generated by
wild pig inhabitation and erosion processess at site M280022 (SK)
31
Fig. 90 Displaced stones of house mounds
generated by wild pig inhabitation and erosion
processess at site M28-0022 (SK)
Fig. 91 Visible stone alignment of house mound at site M280024 (SK)
Fig. 92 Tobu ni sili - sacred pool (SK)
Fig. 93 Vatu ni veiyalayala – land boundary (SK)
Fig. 94 Raised mound with stone alignment at
site M28-0019 (SK)
Fig. 95 Sakiusa Kataiwai and guide in front of a fortification
structure at site M28-0066 (SK)
32
Fig. 96 Ruins of the stone wall at site M28-0059
(SK)
Fig. 97 Rock shelter and camp site for the Archaeology
team at site M28-0069 (SK)
33
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
The Fiji REDD+
REDD+ is an international programme so named for countries’ efforts to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and foster conservation,
sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (Forest
Carbon Partnership Facility, 2013)
Fiji’s participation in the programme was formalised through the Fiji REDD+ Policy
which the Fiji Government endorsed in December 2010 (Fiji Forestry Department,
2011). REDD+ in Fiji is supported and funded by the Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (SPC), the Federal Ministry of Economic Co-operation and
Development, Germany (GIZ) through the Programme Coping with Climate Change in
the Pacific Island Region and the Fiji Department of Forestry.
One of the REDD+ policy activities is the establishment of a pilot site for Fiji, for
which the mataqali Emalu of the yavusa Emalu in Navosa Province, Viti Levu was
selected. This programme focused on four key objectives:
•
To conduct a forest inventory and carbon pool measurement of the Emalu
pilot site. The intended outcomes are to test the carbon pool measurement
methodology recommended for Fiji, to contribute to the development of a
national protocol for forest carbon measurements and monitoring, and to have
a Tier 3 level carbon stock calculation.
•
To conduct rapid biodiversity surveys and develop instruments to monitor
biodiversity changes in the pilot site. This will contribute to a national
biodiversity monitoring protocol for REDD+ projects.
•
To undertake a socio-economic survey of the people of the Emalu forest using
participatory appraisal tools, establish social and economic baselines and
assess the social and economic implication of the REDD+ project following
relevant international guidelines and standards. Indicators will be developed
as part of the monitoring procedure. An assessment of drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation of the Emalu REDD+ pilot site and the surrounding
area will also be undertaken.
•
To carry out a cultural and archaeological mapping of the pilot site.
To protect Fiji’s terrestrial biodiversity it is critically important that protected areas
have sufficient connectivity to meet the area requirements of wide-ranging
threatened species and ecological processes, and that these protected areas are
managed as a coordinated system for effective conservation.
34
It is also vital to create awareness and appreciation of the importance of biodiversity
amongst local communities. Equally important is a forward defence against
emerging threats to biodiversity, by providing information to decision-makers,
establishing support and incentives for biodiversity conservation, and building
capacity to manage biodiversity resources.
Survey Overview
The South Pacific Regional Herbarium (SPRH) at the Institute of Applied Science
(IAS), University of the South Pacific coordinated the biodiversity and archaeological
surveys. The surveys were carried out in two phases; 17-26 July, 2012 and 18-26
March, 2013.
The focus of the surveys was to map areas of high biodiversity and archaeological
importance, develop monitoring protocols following Climate, Community &
Biodivesity Alliance (CCBA) standards, and later contribute towards a national
biodiversity monitoring protocol for REDD+ projects.
Study Area
The REDD+ pilot site is the land encompassed by the mataqali Emalu in the province
of Navosa (Map 1). The Emalu area lies in the climatic transitional zone in central Viti
Levu in the province of Navosa, which is adjacent to five other provinces; Nadroga,
Ba, Namosi, Naitasiri and Serua. The Emalu site covers an area of 7, 347ha,
predominately covered by closed forest.
The Emalu land is under the ownership of the Draubuta landowners, a population of
about 400 people living in more than 30 households in the village of Draubuta. They
constitute five land-owning units, or mataqali, namely:
1. Mataqali Koroivabeka (Tokatoka : Naboseiwale, Narogairua).
2. Mataqali Naqio (Yavusa: Mota, Tokatoka: Nadurusila).
3. Mataqali Navesiqiyani (Tokatoka: Navesiqiyani).
4. Mataqali Naocotabua (Tokatoka: Naocotabua).
5. Mataqali Emalu (Yavusa: Emalu, Tokatoka: Emalu, Duiyabe).
Situated on an alluvial plain, with the Nasa Creek running along the village and
spilling into the upper reaches of the Sigatoka River, accessibility to Draubuta is a
steep 1.5km descent by foot from the nearest dirt road. The main source of income is
through commercial agriculture, mainly kava and taro.
The Emalu land encloses two important catchment areas; (1) the Nasa catchment (on
the drier part of Viti Levu) which drains into the Sigatoka river, and (2) the Mavuvu
35
and Waikarakarawa catchments (on the wetter part of Viti Levu) discharges into the
Navua River.
The terrain is primarily steep with the highest peak of Mt. Vonolevu having an
elevation of 1,111m. The western side of Emalu forest, which is the drier part of the
transition zone, borders the talasiga grassland. On the eastern side towards Namosi,
which is the wetter part of the transition zone, are the closed rainforests.
The underlying geology of the area is Tholo Plutonic Suite, an intrusive type of rock
which intruded into the Wainimala Group and which is dated to the Upper Miocene
period or later (Rodda, 1967, Rodda, 1976). The alluvial soils from the tributaries in
the Navosa region are classified as Wainibuka sandy clay loam (Twyford and
Wright, 1965, cited in King, 2004). These soils contain high phosphate levels (King,
2004) therefore making it optimum for planting. Rainfall is the major factor
determining the different vegetation systems (requiring different microclimates) and
on average ranges from 2000 to 4000 mm annually (Derrick, 1951)
36
CHAPTER 2:
FLORA, VEGETATION & ECOLOGY
Senilolia H. Tuiwawa, Hans Wendt and Marika V. Tuiwawa
2.1 Summary
A total of 707 plant taxa were recorded for Emalu, including 286 bryophytes and
lichens, 375 angiosperms, nine gymnosperms, and 35 ferns and fern allies.
Altogether, the vascular and non-vascular taxa recorded from the Emalu site
spanned 182 families and 391 genera. Over a third (39%) of the vascular plant flora
recorded are endemic to Fiji, including 160 species of flowering plants, two fern and
fern allies, and two gymnosperms. Ten taxa were encountered that are important
focal species due to their rarity, botanical significance, very recent discovery in Fiji
and inclusion in the IUCN Red List.
Five principal vegetation types were identified: lowland rainforest, upland rainforest,
cloud forest, dry forest and talasiga/grassland. The lowland rainforest, dry forest and
the associated riparian vegetation were the most heavily impacted, indicated by the
evidence of garden terracing and communal living and can be classified as
anthropogenic primary forest. The upland rainforest and cloud forest were the least
impacted vegetation types and can be described as relatively primary rainforests
with comparatively higher tree species diversity and density.
2.2 Introduction
There is literally little or no botanical information available for the Emalu area. This
report is therefore the first documentation of vascular and non-vascular plants of the
Emalu forest. The objectives of this survey were:
•
To document the range of vegetation types and typical botanical communities
within the study area,
•
To identify the presence (or potential presence) of species or ecosystems of
national and/or international significance, and,
•
To assess the susceptibility of the biological communities (in particular plant
communities) to the potential impacts associated with the proposed project.
2.3 Methodology
The first phase of the botanical work was carried out within the Tovatova catchment.
The field work assessment began in the open grasslands about 500m upstream from
Navitilevu Village along the Nasa Creek. This was necessary for comparative
purposes towards the incursion of similar forest/habitat types at higher altitudinal
areas within the Emalu boundary.
37
The second phase of the botanical work was carried out within the Mavuvu
catchment from a basecamp located along Waikarakarawa stream. At
Waikarakarawa, Mavuvu and Mt. Vonolevu, field work began at the lowland
rainforest and progressed towards the cloud forest.
Habitat analysis
Prior to the fieldwork an initial assessment of the study area was made using satellite
imagery. It was noted that areas closest to Navitilevu Village were covered in
grassland, and that farming activities were further upstream along the Nasa River.
Bamboo stands were plentiful in areas that have been left as fallow for long periods
of time. Areas beyond these farms were covered with forest. The higher altitude
mountainous landscape towards Mt. Vonolevu (1,111m) was earmarked as an area of
interest. This area would have cloud forest vegetation, normally found at elevations
above 850m, although some have been reported from mountain top from lower
elevations e.g. Mt. Korobaba at 400m elevations (Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1985).
Cloud forest is a system known to have very unique plant life, and the forest was
expected to be relatively intact.
Flora Survey
Opportunistic collections were made of mosses, liverworts, hornworts and lichens on
different substrates. These were packeted for further processing and identification
(Fig. 11, Fig. 12) at the South Pacific Regional Herbarium. Bryophyte collections of
Harris (1967), Fife (2004), Pocs (2004) and Renner (2012) were cross-referenced
including the most recent cryptogram work undertaken for Fiji (von Konrat et al.,
2011, Lumbsch et al., 2011, Soderstrom et al., 2011).
Native plant species, especially those endemic to Fiji, and any species flowering
and/or fruiting, were opportunistically collected and documented whilst trekking
through the area. Additionally plant species observed within the belt transects set up
to quantitatively assess plant density, distribution and diversity within the forest
types, were also documented. Collected specimens were deposited at the South
Pacific Regional Herbarium where verification of specimen identification was later
carried out. In validating the identification, the collection of fertile materials with
special emphasis on the unknown groups i.e. bryophytes and focal species (on the
IUCN Red List) was carried out. The distribution of these taxa within the area
covered was also marked (Map 2) and recommendations for their protection are also
highlighted. Plant names follow those used by Smith (1981, 1979, 1985, 1988, 1991) for
gymnosperms and flowering plants, and those used by Brownlie (1977) and Perrie
and Brownsey (2011) for the pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies).
38
Vegetation community structure
In documenting the range of principal vegetation types and forest or habitat
communities, the topographic and forest cover maps for Fiji, as well as satellite
images were initially used to identify representations of the various plant
communities. A reconnaissance of the area was carried out during which sites were
selected for location of transects and plots.
Quantitative assessment of the communities in different forest types was carried out
using 10m x 10m plots along a 100m transect, a methodology used previously in
other sites in Fiji (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg, 1998, Tuiwawa, 1999).
Plots were used to:
•
assess the presence and absence of focal species,
•
characterise associated vegetation communities with each principal vegetation
type, and
•
confirm boundaries between biological communities encountered.
Within each plot, every tree with a diameter at breast height (dbh) greater or equal to
5cm was measured, identified and recorded. The bole height, crown height and
width were estimated for each tree enumerated. Ground cover vegetation was
described, canopy cover estimated and in addition, the epiphytic flora recorded.
Where feasible GPS locations and photographs of the vegetation were taken.
Habitat characterization
Habitat characterisations for forested areas relied on a number of sources of
information, and was undertaken to produce a stratified hierarchical habitat
classification. These sources of information and levels of classification were as
follows:
•
plot data to determine vegetation community structure,
•
principal vegetation types (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg, 1998),
•
1:50,000 topographic map indicating terrain features, and
•
plot data to determine impact status and likely dominant species and their
associates.
The non-forested areas included open country (rivers, open riparian areas, roads,
villages and settlements) and agricultural land (subsistence plantations, commercial
farms, pastures and fallow land). These non-forested areas were not assessed in
detail but were briefly described and highlighted in the vegetation map for the
39
project (Map 3 and Map 4). The assessment of the vegetation was focused more on
forested area then on non-forested areas.
For the forest or habitat typing process the most prominent topographical feature of
the forested area was used and categorised as follows:
•
Slope - forested area found on slopes with a gradient ranging from 10 to 85
degrees.
•
Ridge top - forested area found on top or along a ridge or mountain range.
The width of such ridges could range from a few centimetres up to 20m, with
an unlimited length.
•
Flat - forested areas with a gradient ranging from 0 to 10 degrees. These areas
also included raised river flats and flood plains.
In addition to the forest typing, a system of assigning an impact status to each area
was developed (Appendix 4). Whilst rudimentary, the aim of this system was to
provide guidance on which areas of forest have previously been subjected to
disturbance. The categories for the impact were as follows:
•
Low - Primary forest in which there is little or no evidence of disturbance;
•
Medium - Secondary forest that is recovering and displays some of the
ecological complexity and function associated with a secondary and primary
forest type or a transition forest type; and
•
High - Secondary forest that shows signs that the disturbance is recent and ongoing.
2.4 Results and discussion
2.4.1
Diversity of non-vascular plants (bryophytes) and lichens
A total of 286 non-vascular plant taxa were collected, recorded and assigned to 72
families, and 133 genera (Appendix 1). The largest families for each of the main
bryophyte groups were Neckeraceae (for mosses), Lejeuneaceae (for liverworts),
Anthocerotaceae (for hornworts) and Graphidaceae (algal symbionts or lichens).
Bryophytes and lichens in the area are typical features in the various systems given
the high elevation. The diversity and density is, at a glance, expectedly low given
that the study area is on the dry side of the island. The collections made will all
contribute to documented range extensions of these species. These records will be
incorporated in the planned publication of the Flora of Bryophytes for the Fiji
Islands, currently in preparation. These non-vascular groups of plants are also
fundamental to climate change research.
40
2.4.2
Diversity of vascular plants
A total of 421 taxa were recorded, of which 395 taxa were identified to species level
and 36 taxa to genus level. Of the total taxa recorded there were 375 angiosperms
(315 dicots and 60 monocots), 35 ferns and fern allies, and nine gymnosperms. For
those taxa identified 350 were native, which comprised 185 indigenous species (145
angiosperms, 32 ferns and eight gymnosperms) and 165 endemic species (160
angiosperms, two ferns and two gymnosperms). A total of 71 exotic species (48
dicots, 22 monocots and one fern), were also recorded. Ten taxa were encountered all
of which were native and considered important focal species. The full species
checklist is provided in Appendix 2.
2.4.3
Focal Species
There were a total of ten species encountered which were considered important due
to their rarity, botanical significance, their very recent discovery in Fiji or their IUCN
Red List status. The locations of some of these ten focal species within the study area
are shown on Map 2, and photographs of them in Fig. 1-Fig. 10.
Acmopyle sahniana Buchh. & N.E.Gray (Fig. 1)
The species is endemic to Fiji and found only on the island of Viti Levu. On this
survey a relatively large and viable population was recorded in the upland
vegetation of the Mavuvu Creek at 600-700m. In Fiji, this species is quite restricted in
distribution with an estimated 150 trees recorded to date from the highlands of
Namosi, Naitasiri and Ra Province and is currently classified as Critically
Endangered on the IUCN Red List (Thomas, 2013). A. sahniana is locally known as
kautabua or drautabua and its greatest threats are from mining or logging
operations. Its occurrence in the lower and upper Mavuvu catchment is a promising
confirmation of a new population of A. sahniana and more importantly, a range
extension of its current distribution.
Degeneria vitiensis I.W.Bailey & A.C.Sm. (Fig. 2, Fig. 3)
This species and the two others within the genus are endemic to Fiji. Degeneria is the
sole genus of the family Degeneriaceae, also a Fiji endemic, and one of the oldest
flowering plant families in the world. D. vitiensis is a timber tree found in lowland
and upland areas on the islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni, and is
categorised as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (World Conservation Monitoring
Centre, 1998). D. vitiensis is locally known as vavaloa or masiratu and its greatest
threats are from the clearance of forest for agriculture and human habitation. Its
occurrence in the upper parts of the lowland and upland area of the study area (590650m) suggests a range extension of its current distribution.
41
Macodes cf. petola (Fig. 4)
This orchid was not documented in Smith’s Flora Vitiensis Nova (1979), and the closest
occurrence of the genus is in Vanuatu. Its occurrence in Fiji is seemingly the result of
long distance dispersal but given evidence of human habitation in adjacent lower
rainforest, it is likely that the taxon was part of an early introduction to Fiji by early
settlers. This species was collected for the second time in Fiji since 2005 and was
recorded in the upland rainforest vegetation on the slopes adjacent to the ridges, at
650-750m. Further research on its population structure and distribution is required to
confirm the mode of introduction into Fiji’s archipelago.
Nervilia cf. punctata (Fig. 5)
This species of orchid is rare in Fiji, known previously from a single collection on Mt.
Korobaba in 1979. Outside of Fiji it is also known to occur in Borneo and Sumatra.
This terrestrial orchid was recorded on slopes of the lowland rainforest vegetation at
about 450-550m.
Equisetum ramosissimum (Desf.) subsp. debile (Roxb.) Hauke (Fig. 6)
This species of fern ally is not common elsewhere apart from Viti Levu with
extensions eastwards into the tropical Pacific. There are only three records of the
species from Ba, Naitasiri and Serua. It is recorded as common along the edges of
river and creeks. It was recorded in the riparian vegetation off the banks of Nasa
River, at about 500m and is a strong indicator of an intact riparian system.
Metroxylon vitiense (H.Wendl.) Hook. f (Fig. 7, Fig. 8)
This species of palm is endemic to Fiji and is locally referred to as soga. It is common
on the south east of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu but is highly threatened due to its
harvesting for food (palm heart) and for leaves for thatching. Its habitat (swamp) is
targeted for land reclamation both for agriculture development and human
habitation. Very few trees were observed along the river embankments in the lower
Mavuvu River catchment.
Cyphosperma tanga (H.E.Moore) H.E.Moore (Fig. 9, Fig. 10)
This palm is endemic to Fiji and is locally referred to as taqwa and is one of the most
threatened palm species in Fiji due to logging and establishment of plantations
(Watling, 2005). Its only other known wild population occurs along the western
slopes of Mt. Tomaniivi (Fiji’s highest mountain, 1323m). The second viable
population, encountered during this survey, lies just outside the eastern Emalu
boundary.
42
Alpinia parksii (Gillespie) A.C.Sm.
This species of coarse herb, unlike Alpinia boia, is uncommon. It grows up to 5m high
along river banks and ridges. It becomes more prominent further up along ridges
and slopes. Its leaves are used for thatching and it is locally known as locoloco or
boiaboia.
Balaka diffusa Hodel
This species of palm is known to be restricted to the Nabukavesi River catchment on
Viti Levu. Its occurrence in the cloud forest of Mt. Vonolevu is a range extension of
the current population. It is an endemic species, locally referred to as balaka, and is
the largest of all balaka in Fiji in terms of its height and girth.
Geanthus cevuga (Seem.) Loesener
This species of ornamental plants is native to Samoa (where it is common) and Fiji
(where it is rare). It was thought previously to only occur in Namosi but recent
findings have confirmed its occurrence in other parts of Fiji as an ornamental. The
leaves are used to scent coconut oil and necklaces and as a food spice. It is locally
referred to as cevuga damu. In Emalu it was found in an old village site growing
alongside sacasaca, moli kania and koka trees.
2.4.4
Vegetation community structure
Of the nine principal vegetation types recorded for Fiji, five were encountered in the
study area: lowland rainforest, upland rainforest, cloud forest, dry forest and talasiga
grassland. The dry forest refered to here is a mesic forest. All vegetation types except
the talasiga grassland were quantitatively assessed.
The detailed results of the quantitative assessment of plots in these different
vegetation types are given in Appendix 3. In total 136 plots were analysed; 40 in
lowland forest, 41 in upland forest, 44 in dry forest and eleven in cloud forest. Within
each of these vegetation types the plots were distributed over a variety of forest
habitats.
Vegetation type 1: Lowland rainforest
Lowland rainforest is typically found on the windward side of large islands from sea
level to 650m, with annual rainfall of over 2000mm. In Emalu the lowland rainforest
is restricted to the Mavuvu and Waikarakarawa catchments. Overall, the forest in
this principal vegetation type is best described as primary forest. All tree species
recorded from the plots are either endemic or indigenous species and none of the tree
species associated with human habitation was encountered or even observed outside
plots. Stocking of good quality timber tree species is high and so is the size of
merchantable tree species.
43
Three different forest types were observed and quantified using 40 plots in four
transects. The forest types were characterised as follow:
Ridge top forest type
The 20 plots assessed contained an average of 26 (range 9 to 54) trees per plot, and an
average of thirteen (range 7 to 23) species per plot. The most common species was
Garcinia myrtifolia (laubu), which was present in more than 50% of the plots assessed.
The largest individual trees were Decussocarpus vitiensis (amunu) with a dbh of
107cm, followed by Endospermum macrophyllum (kauvula) with a dbh of 95cm and
Calophyllum vitiense (damanu) with a dbh of 82cm. The average dbh was 15cm (range
5-107cm). Overall, the twenty plots assessed had no single dominant species but the
combined biomass (as reflected in the dbh) of D. vitiensis, E. macrophyllum, and C.
vitiense gave a relative dominance of 52%.
Slope forest type
The seventeen plots assessed had an average of nineteen (range 11 to 28) trees per
plot, and an average of eleven (range 7 to 16) species. Garcinia myrtifolia occurred in
more than 60% of the plots assessed, and was the most common species. The average
dbh of trees in the plots was 15cm (range 5-100cm). The largest tree documented in
the plots was Endospermum macrophyllum with a dbh of 100 cm followed by Storckiella
vitiensis (marasa) with a dbh of 78 cm. There was no single dominant species as the
tree sizes were evenly distributed amongst all species, but the combined biomass (as
reflected in the dbh) of E. macrophyllum, S. vitiensis and Calophyllum vitiense gave a
relative dominance of 51%.
River flat forest type
The three plots assessed had an average 23 (range 15 to 33) trees per plot, and an
average of fourteen (range 12 to 16) species per plot. The most common tree species
were Garcinia myrtifolia, Garcinia pseudoguttifera and Endiandra gillespiei. The average
dbh of trees in the plots was 18cm (range 5-131cm). The largest tree encountered was
Decussocarpus vitiensis with a dbh of 131cm, and this was also the dominant species
with a relative dominance of 86%.
Vegetation Type 2: Upland Rainforest
The survey on this principal vegetation type was restricted to forested areas at
elevations of 650-850m. Three forest types were observed and quantified using 41
plots in six transects, and were characterised as follows:
Ridge top forest type
A total of 24 plots along three transects were used to analyze this forest type. There
was an average of 30 trees (range 17-55) recorded in each plot, and an average of
44
eighteen species (range 12-29) per plot. The most common species were Syzygium
spp. (yasiyasi) and Litsea sp. (lidi). The largest tree encountered was Agathis
macrophylla (dakua makadre) with a dbh of 152cm. Other large trees included
Syzygium sp. (150cm) and two other A. macrophylla (140, 111cm). The average dbh
was 18cm (range 5-152cm) with the dominant species being A. macrophylla (45%
relative dominance). All dominant trees recorded from each plot are important
timber tree species with dbh ranging from 31cm to 152cm and these include
Calophyllum vitiense, Dacrydium nidulum (yaka), Syzygium spp., A. macrophylla, and
Burckella spp. (bau). Together these five species comprised approximately 75% of the
biomass of all trees in this forest type.
Slope forest type
Fifteen plots along two transects contained an average of 28 (range 10 to 40) trees per
plot (100m2) with an average number of 17 (range 8 to 25) species per plot. The most
common species were Gironniera celtidifolia (sisisi) and Cyathea spp. (balabala) whilst
other common species in some of the plots included C. vitiense and Saurauia rubicunda
(mimila). The largest tree encountered was Garcinia myrtifolia with a dbh of 89cm.
Other large trees recorded included Endospermum macrophyllum (dbh of 71, 65cm), A.
macrophylla (69cm) and C. vitiense (68, 65cm). The average dbh was 19cm (range 5-152
cm). Overall there was no dominant species for this forest type, but across the plots
the trees that together made up 80% of the total biomass were E. macrophyllum, A.
macrophylla, Syzygium spp., C. vitiense, Semecarpus vitiensis (kaukaro), Degeneria
vitiensis (vavaloa, masiratu) and Buchanania attenuata (maqo ni veikau).
Vegetation Type 3: Cloud Forest
On Emalu the cloud forest was restricted to mountain tops and ridges above 850m
and is almost always shrouded in clouds. Precipitation is high and temperature is
generally much lower with trees generally stunted and heavily covered with
bryophytes. A series of eleven plots placed along a fragmented transect over a
slope/ridge towards the summit of Mt. Vonolevu (1,111m) was used to quantitatively
assess this forest type.
An average of 42 trees per plot (range 31 to 70) with an average number of 15 species
per plot (range 11 to 22) was recorded for the area. The most common species were
Syzygium spp. and Cyathea spp. The largest tree, with a dbh of 181cm, was Syzygium
sp. Other large trees included Calophyllum vitiense (60cm dbh) and Degeneria vitiensis
(43 cm dbh). The average dbh was 12cm (range 5 -181cm) and the average bole height
was 1.8m (range 1 to 5m). C. vitiense and Syzygium sp. were dominant species from
some of the plots assessed but overall D. vitiensis and C. vitiense were the dominant
species with greater than 80% relative dominance.
45
Vegetation Type 4: Dry Forest
The native dry forest vegetation type on the leeward side of Viti Levu has been
almost completely destroyed by combined grazing, agriculture and fire. The survey
on this principal vegetation type was restricted to forested areas adjacent to the
grassland in elevations ranging from 250m to 650m within the Nasa catchment. In a
seasonal dry forest the mean annual rainfall is about 2,000mm.
Three habitat or forest types were quantified using 44 plots in six transects. The
forest types and their characteristics were as follows:
River flat forest type
The nineteen plots assessed along three transects held an average of fifteen (range 7
to 24) trees and an average of seven species (range 4 to 11) were present within a
plot. The most common tree species were Syzygium malaccense (kavika) and Citrus
grandis (moli kania). The largest trees were C. grandis and Dysoxyllum richii (tarawau
kei rakaka), having a dbh of 89cm and 86cm, respectively. The average dbh of trees
was 21cm (range 10-89cm). The dominant species from some of the plots assessed
was D. richii with a relative dominace of 80% and S. malaccense with 69%. Overall,
there were no dominant species across the haitat as the biomass was fairly evenly
distributed amongst the larger trees. Most of the trees discussed above are associated
with human habitation.
Ridge top forest type
Within the ten plots used to analyze this habitat there was an average of 35 trees
(range 21 to 51) and sixteen species (range 10 to 25) per plot. The most common
species was Litsea sp., followed by Garcinia myrtifolia and Citrus grandis. The largest
tree observed was Ficus obliqua (baka ni viti) with a dbh of 132cm. Other large trees
included several Bischofia javanica (86, 77 and 76cm dbh) and Dysoxyllum sp. (76cm
dbh). The average tree dbh was 23cm (range 10-132cm). The dominant trees from
some of the plots assessed were F. obliqua and Dysoxyllum sp. with a relative
dominance of 57% and 53%, respectively. Overall there was no dominant tree species
in this habitat despite B. javanica having a relative dominance overall of 48%. Like the
river flat above, the presence of tree species like C. grandis, S. malaccense and B.
javanica is indicative of past human habitation and activity in this area.
Slope forest type
Fifteen plots along two transects were used to analyze this habitat. An average of 23
trees (range 8 to 37) with an average number of ten species (range 6 to 14) per plot
was recorded. The most common species was Litsea sp. with the largest tree
encountered being F. obliqua with a dbh of 148 cm and other large trees that included
Dysoxylum quercifoliuma and Neonauclea fosteri (vacea) with dbh of 120 and 113cm,
respectively. The average dbh was 22cm (range 6 to 148). The dominant species
46
assessed were D. quercifolium, F. obliqua and N. fosteri all with relative dominance of
greater than 74%. Overall, the dominant species for this forest type were the
Dysoxylum spp. (4 taxa) and Ficus obliqua which together comprised 75% of the total
biomass in this habitat.
Overall, the forest or habitat types found in this principal vegetation type are best
described as an anthropogenic primary forest as most of the more dominant and
common tree species are associated with human activity. Other species not found in
the plots that testify to this include Codiaeum variegatum (sacasaca), Cordyline fruticosa
(qai), Schizostachyum glaucifolium (bitu dina) and Veitchia joannis (saqiwa, niuniu).
Vegetation Type 5: Talasiga Vegetation
Grassland/talasiga habitat type
The grassland is restricted to the slopes and ridge tops and is mostly made up of the
grass Pennisetum polystachyon (mission grass), Sporobolus spp. (wire grass),
Dicranopteris spp., (qato or bracken ferns), Pteridium esculentum, Miscanthus floridulus
(gasau or reed) and many other smaller weedy plants. The general lack of tree cover
is characteristic of such a landscape. The grassland is regularly set on fire to allow for
new re-growth of grass for use as fodder for cattles and horses. Areas closer to the
edge of the gully forest are used for subsistence farming.
Woody shrubland habitat type
This vegetation was observed growing between the grassland and the forest edge
and is also referred to as savannah grassland. The area was dominated by secondary
pioneer plant species like Commersonia bartramia (sama), Parasponia andersonii (drou),
Tarenna sambucina (vakaceredavui), Trema orientalis, Dillenia biflora, Decaspermum
vitiense (nuqanuqa) and larger patches of Schizostachyyum glaucifolium and M.
floridulus. This habitat is where active agricultural activities are occurring both at the
subsistence level and on a semi-commercial scale. Gardens or plantations of yaqona,
banana and taro are common and so are patches of abandoned (fallow) gardens.
Such activity expands the grassland habitat types into forested areas and as noticed
from the survey will continue to do so especially with increasing pressure from
subsistence farming and a growing population.
River bank/riparian habitat type
The vegetation along the creek and river system that is found adjacent to the
grassland was mostly dominated by important introduced and native fruit trees.
Also found here were important trees species that have cultural uses, such as
Inocarpus fagifer (ivi, chestnut), Pometia pinnata (dawa), several species of Citrus spp.,
Artocarpus altilis (uto, breadfruit), Cocos nucifera (niu), Spondus dulcis (wi), Syzygium
malaccense (kavika) and Terminalia catappa (tavola). Other culturally important trees
47
include Aleurites moluccana, Bischofia javanica, Cananga odorata (makosoi), Cordyline
fruticosa (qai) and Euodia hortensis (uci).
2.5 Conclusions and recommendations
The discovery of the focal species detailed above, in particular, the priority
conservation species on the IUCN Red List, as well as rare orchids, parasitic plants,
and palms is an indication of the micro-sensitivity and function of the upper
catchment areas that have yet to be fully explored, and which needs protecting.
Based on current knowledge of these taxa, any level of development (logging or
agricultural) could seriously affect their existence, thus more effort needs to be
invested in their protection. Overall the presence of a large number of these high
value conservation species within the Nasa, Mavuvu and Waikarakarawa Creek
catchment highlights the biodiversity importance of Emalu. For Viti Levu (and for
Fiji as a whole) it is an area with the highest concentration of important plants of
conservation priority.
In terms of the vegetation, the level of human impact decreases as you move further
inland or away from current human habitation, and also towards the higher altitudes
of Mt. Vonolevu. Demarcation of these habitat types is quite obvious in the grassland
vegetation but almost near impossible to detect under heavy canopy in the forested
lowland and upland vegetation including the riparian system running across these
vegetation types. It is recommended that more extensive future surveys be carried
out in these areas.
48
CHAPTER 3:
HERPETOFAUNA
Nunia Thomas and Isaac Rounds
3.1 Summary
This report documents the first record of herpetofauna biodiversity within the Emalu
study area. Emalu, like many other parts of Viti Levu, contains habitats ideal for
herpetofauna. Despite weather and time constraints this survey produced results
similar to surveys carried out in other areas of Viti Levu, encountering six species of
herpetofauna: three endemic, two native and one invasive. Further surveys will very
likely reveal the existence of additional herpetofaunal species.
3.2 Introduction
To date, there has been no documented information on the herpetofauna of the
Emalu area. This report is therefore the first documented study of these organisms.
The objectives of this baseline herpetaofauna survey were to:
•
Document the herpetofauna diversity in the study area.
•
Identify ideal herpetofauna habitat.
•
Trial herpetofauna survey methods with recommendations for long-term
monitoring in the study site.
3.3 Methodology
Field Assessment
During the survey periods the weather was generally fine every day with occasional
and sometimes heavy afternoon showers. At the Waikarakarawa survey site heavy
rain on one day resulted in flashflooding. Weather conditions dictated the number of
days, type of traps and survey methods conducted, and these are summarised in
Appendix 5. Average air temperatures recorded for the nocturnal surveys were
20.6°C and 26°C for the Nasa and Waikarakarawa catchments respectively.
Habitat Assessment
The objective of the expedition was to record all herpetofauna species captured
and/or observed within the study site; and develop appropriate long term
monitoring methods. For this reason, all potential habitats within good forest cover
and outside of the forest were surveyed. The study area generally had ideal
herpetofauna habitats: riparian vegetation, ridge forest, forest floor cover of leaf litter
and rotting wood, and trees with dense epiphyte cover. Systematically, the survey
49
targeted a ridge habitat, riparian forest habitat and lowland forest habitat. A total of
ten sites were intensively surveyed (Map 5).
Diurnal and Nocturnal Herpetofauna Surveys
There are several accepted methods for herpetofauna surveys that generally fall
under two categories: opportunistic diurnal and nocturnal searches and trapping,
and standardised nocturnal and diurnal searches and trapping. A summary of the
methods used in this survey is given in Appendix 5
Herpetofauna surveys in Fiji have generally been opportunistic, but their methods
standardised to allow for comparison between sites. Other long term herpetofauna
monitoring plots on Viti Levu: the Sovi Basin Conservation Area and the Wabu
Forest Reserve are limited to nocturnal frog searches. Because of the cryptic and
heliophilic nature of Fiji’s reptiles; and Fiji’s climate, survey and trap methods are
wide ranging, albeit limited by weather conditions.
The herpetofauna surveys in the Emalu study site consisted of three techniques but
were constrained by the rainy weather. These are described below:
Standardised sticky trap transects whereby sticky mouse traps (Masterline®) are
laid out at intervals along a transect. Each station is designated a station number (110) with a cluster of three traps per station for three placements to represent local
habitat structure at each location (tree, log and ground). Transects are laid out along
identified ideal habitats e.g. ridge tops and along river banks/ riparian vegetation.
Leaf litter cover, canopy cover and undergrowth are all recorded. Left overnight,
traps are checked regularly for captured specimens. These traps target both
terrestrial and arboreal species.
Frogs and geckoes are active and more visible at night. Standardised (time
constrained) nocturnal visual encounter surveys (2 hours) in ideal frog habitat are
used. This method gives an encounter rate for comparison with other surveys within
Fiji. Search efforts with a minimum of two observers at any one time targeted
streams and adjacent banks/ flood plains.
Opportunistic Visual Encounter Surveys outside of the standardised searches allow
for a record of presence/absence of herpetofauna. Skinks are more likely to be seen
during the day, particularly during hot and sunny conditions. Opportunistic diurnal
surveys were conducted along trails enroute to the camp site, vegetation plots, along
stream edges, and in forest habitats surveyed by other survey teams in the
expedition. Search efforts targeted potential skink habitat and frog and burrowing
snake diurnal retreat sites. The diurnal surveys began at 09:00 and ended at 15:00 on
each of the survey days. The team had a minimum of two searchers at any one time.
Environmental variables such as air temperature, water temperature, weather
conditions (rain/fine) and cloud cover (%) were taken at the beginning and end of
50
each nocturnal survey. Habitat characteristics and other basic ecological and
biological information of herpetofauna found were recorded. Observations on
possible threats to herpetofauna species and populations were also noted.
Geographic coordinates of survey sites were captured using the Thales Mobile
Mapper Pro Navigator and Garmin GPSmap 60CSx.
3.4 Results
Based on the current knowledge of herpetaofauna on Viti Levu there are a total of 26
species that could potentially occur in the study area (Appendix 6). Prior to the
survey a target list of 12 of these species was drawn up, based on their endemism
and conservation status.
In total six species were encountered over the course of the survey, including three of
the 12 target species. These were the green tree skink (Emoia concolor), the bronzeheaded skink (E. parkeri) shown in Fig. 13 and the Fiji tree frog (Platymantis vitiensis)
shown in Fig. 14.
3.4.1
Nasa catchment
A total of six species were captured during the survey of the Nasa catchment. Three
of these were endemics (Platymantis vitiensis, Emoia parkeri and E. concolor); two were
native (Nactus pelagicus, Fig. 15 and Gehyra vorax, Fig. 16); and one was an invasive
species (Bufo marinus, Fig. 64). These findings were the result of over 14 man-hours of
diurnal survey, 49 hours of sticky trapping and six man-hours of nocturnal surveys.
Two species were reported to occur by local villagers: the endemic banded iguana
(Brachylophus bulabula) and the Pacific boa (Candoia bibroni), but were not encountered
during the expedition.
Herpetofauna were observed at all the three habitat types targeted; but at only two of
the survey sites. The majority of the species were encountered during opportunistic
surveys (4 species); with lower encounter rates for the sticky traps (2 species), and
standard diurnal (2 species) and nocturnal surveys (1 species).
Interestingly, the sticky traps did not yield any rats or invasive ants – which have
been encountered in other survey sites on Viti Levu.
3.4.2
Waikarakarawa and Mavuvu Catchments
For these two catchments the same six herpetofauna species that were encountered in
the Nasa catchment were also found here. The survey of the Waikarakarawa and
Mavuvu catchments consisted of 8 man-hours of diurnal survey, 14 hours of sticky
trapping and 3.3 man-hours of nocturnal surveys.
51
One of the main target species known to occur from historical records to occur in the
area of Waikarakarawa catchment, the Fiji burrowing snake (Ogmodon vitianus), was
not encountered during this survey.
3.5 Discussion
This report documents the first record of herpetofaunal diversity in the Nasa,
Waikarakarawa and Mavuvu catchments on land belonging to the mataqali Emalu.
Fiji’s terrestrial herpetofauna are significantly impacted by introduced mammalian
predators. This is particularly true for Viti Levu which has experienced the
extirpation of two large terrestrial skinks (Emoia trossular and E. nigra) in the presence
of the mongoose, feral cats, feral pigs and rats.
The presence of the Fiji Tree Frog, Platymantis vitiensis (Fig. 14) in the study area is of
exceptional interest – this is a new record for the area and is possibly the westernmost record of the occurrence of the species (in relation to the wet parts of Viti Levu)
in Southern Viti Levu to date.
The apparent absence of the common ground skinks such as E. cyanura both within
the study area and in the agricultural land is interesting and warrants more intensive
searches both within and outside the forested areas, taking into consideration that
weather impacts the observer’s ability to find these species.
The low encounter rates and low diversity of herpetofauna in the study sites do not
necessarily mean an absence of the species. Low encounter rates of heliophlic species
is not uncommon in Viti Levu’s forests; and is typical globally in rainforest habitats
(Ribeiro-Junior et al., 2006, Ribeiro-Junior et al., 2008). Consequently, there are efforts
to develop better quantitative survey methods of forest dwelling herpetofauna – and
these will be considered in the development of an appropriate long term monitoring
method for the Emalu study area. However, sites to target for the establishment of
long-term monitoring plots should ideally be adjacent to the vegetation sample plots,
as done so in this study because of the dependence of native herpetofauna on the
health of the forest. Herpetofauna survey sites will also be extended to the nonforested parts of the study area to assess the presence/absence of the more common
native ground skinks in the area.
3.5.1
Indicator species
Selecting which herpetofauna species could act as indicators of high conservation
value forest was problematic for several reasons. Firstly, the tree frog (P. vitiensis)
was not a suitable indicator species as it was found all over the study area from
disturbed areas right up to the cloud forest. Furthermore, skinks or geckos are not
ideal indicator species as they are cryptic. The invasive cane toad (B. marinus) was
found everywhere except the cloud forest.
52
3.6 Recommendations
Considering that baseline survey within the Emalu forest has now been conducted,
the best option available will be to build on this by conducting subsequent surveys
and standardising the survey techniques especially for the sticky traps and frog
surveys, carrying them out over different seasons and assessing species densities.
Any changes in terms of presence/absence and density over time will indicate the
status of the forest. It is recommended that these intensive and dedicated surveys
focus on a particular area or along standard transects. It is also recommended that
tree climbing techniques be used to enable better capture rates of cryptic skinks and
gecko species.
53
CHAPTER 4:
AVIFAUNA
Alivereti Naikatini
4.1 Summary
The main objectives of the study were to compile a checklist of the birds and bats
species present and observed, and determine the presence of species of high
conservation importance (focal species) for monitoring in the future. The assessment
methods used during the survey were the Point Count Method with a fixed radius of
50m; evening (dusk) bat counts using a Bat Detector device to detect presence of
micro-bats; interviewing of local guides, and opportunistic surveys. About 4000
minutes of avifauna studies were conducted during the two surveys where 59 points
were assessed in 2012 and an additional 37 points in 2013. A total of 35 species of
birds were recorded during the two surveys which included 25 endemic and one
exotic species. Two species of bats were also recorded during the surveys. Ten focal
species were identified (eight bird species and two bat species). The bird diversity of
Emalu is comparable to the four largest Important Bird Areas (IBAs FJ07, FJ08, FJ09,
and FJ10) on Viti Levu and ranks even higher in terms of bird density.
4.2 Introduction
Fiji’s bats play an essential role as seed dispersing agents, major pollinators, and
insect control agents in the rainforest and other terrestrial ecosystems (Palmeirim et
al., 2007). However, bats are understudied in Fiji in terms of ecological research and
there is little public awareness of their role and importance. Bats are the only native
terrestrial mammals of Fiji and six species occur in Fiji, four of which are native and
two endemic (Flannery, 1995, Palmeirim et al., 2007). Four bat species are listed as
threatened (Palmeirim et al., 2007).
Like bats, birds are also very important indicators of the forest health. They are
important seed dispersers, pollinators and insect control agents. In a pristine forest
system, one would expect to find more native and endemic species. There are 68
species of land birds found in Fiji, eleven of which are introduced species.
No previous bird or bat surveys have been carried out in the Emalu area. A few
recent studies were carried to areas close to Emalu, including a bat survey of the
Tatuba caves in the vicinity of Saweni in the Namataku District (Palmeirim et al.,
2007). The most recent bird survey close to the study area was carried out by Birdlife
International (Fiji) in the Southern Viti Levu Highlands (IBA FJ10), which is to the
south of Emalu, Sovi Basin (IBA FJ08) to the east and the Rairaimatuku Plateau (IBA
FJ09) to the north (Masibalavu and Dutson, 2006).
54
The main objectives of this survey were to:
•
Provide a checklist of all avifauna species (birds and bats) present in the site,
•
Highlight species that are of conservation importance (focal species),
•
Provide preliminary abundances of species present, and to
•
Develop a methodology for avifauna monitoring work in the future.
4.3 Methodology
The survey methods used in the survey were the:
•
Point count method (for both bats and birds),
•
Evening counts for bats,
•
Bat detector surveys in the evenings,
•
Opportunistic surveys,
•
Interviews with local communities.
The point count method was the most commonly used method to survey for the bats
and birds. It was only carried out in the morning and afternoons when birds are
more active. Counts in a point were restricted within a 50m radius for a period of ten
minutes according to an established methodology (Naikatini, 2009). Stations were not
randomly located, due to the rugged terrain of the area, but were placed along tracks
and accessible areas. To maximise the size of the area covered, points were placed at
least 200 – 400m apart. This was also done to minimise the likelihood of double
counts. Each morning or afternoon session would last two to four hours depending
on the weather. All birds detected within the 50m radius area were recorded and
GPS locations noted. The inclusion of as many sub-habitats as possible – riparian,
flat, slope, ridge and ridge top - in disturbed and undisturbed areas was attempted.
The total number of points, birds and species recorded were tabulated to give the
relative abundance or density of each species.
Bat surveys were also carried out by conducting bat counts in the early evenings
(from about one hour before sunset – 17:00 to 18:00) from a good lookout or open
area to determine what bat species were flying over and their direction of flight. The
total number of bats counted in an hour would give an idea of the bat activity and
abundance in the study area. Bat detectors were also used in the evenings near the
camp site by walking along the trail and stopping at various points where there was
an opening or gap in the canopy and pointing the bat detector into the direction of
the sky. The bat detector enabled us to tune to the frequencies at which the two
micro-bat species (present in Fiji) would be detected if they flew over or were feeding
55
nearby. These surveys were only carried out for about an hour between 1900 and
2200 hours, and also when weather conditions were favorable for such surveys.
Opportunistic surveys were also conducted whilst travelling from one point station
to another, or whilst travelling within the area from one base camp to another.
Interviews with the local guides were carried out on some evenings. Local guides
knew the area well, including where the main bat roosts are located, as well as the
species of birds they may have encountered in the area previously.
4.4 Results and discussion
In total approximately 4000 minutes were spent actively conducting bat and bird
surveys, and over 70 hectares were covered using the point count method. A total of
35 species of land birds and two species of bats were recorded in the study site, and
these are listed in Appendix 7. Identifications were verified using a published field
guide (Watling, 2001). A total of 96 point stations were surveyed during the 20 days
of survey. These point stations (shown on Map 6) were located in the different subhabitat types found with the main vegetation systems; lowland rainforest (<600m
elevation), upland rainforest (600-800m elevation) and cloud forest (>800m
elevation). A table of the location and habitat of each station and a summary of the
species diversity and bird abundance is provided in Appendix 8
Of the 35 species of land birds recorded, one is an exotic species and 25 are endemic
to Fiji. The exotic species, commonly known as the red-vented bulbul (Pycnotus cafer)
on the IUCN Red List as being a species of Least Concern (Birdlife International,
2012a) and is more common on the western edges of the Emalu site. Eight species of
birds recorded are listed as focal bird species for conservation in Fiji because of their
status (Appendix 9). Stations where bird and bat focal species were recorded are
marked on (Map 7).
The long-leggd warbler (Fig. 18), classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List
(Birdlife International, 2012b) was found to be common in the upland and
undisturbed riparian vegetation; an example of this habit is shown in Fig. 17.
Sightings of the collared lorry, Phigys solitarius (Fig. 19), and the golden dove,
Ptilinopus luteovirens (Fig. 20), were also made during the survey.
Only two species of bats were recorded throughout the survey; Pteropus samoensis,
the Samoan flying-fox and P. tonganus the Pacific flying-fox. Pteropus samoensis (Fig.
21) is listed in the IUCN Red List as Near Threatened (Brooke and Wiles, 2008). P.
tonganus (Fig. 22) was not commonly encountered in the study area in 2012 however
it was common in the areas surveyed in 2013 and seemed to be more common in the
upper Mavuvu catchment. Here, two of the guides were able to catch seven bats one
evening in just one hour, with sticks. The guides also mentioned that the upper
Mavuvu area was well known for bats. No bat roost for P. tonganus was sighted in
the Emalu REDD+ site. The closest roost was located outside the study area, and
56
consisted of over 1000 bats. There could be roosts located in the forested areas on the
Namosi side of Emalu however time constraints did not allow for a confirmation of
this. No micro-bats were detected using the bat detectors. However this should not
imply that there are no micro-bats foraging for food in Emalu as there needs to be
more follow up studies to confirm this.
Table 1. Comparison of Emalu to the four largest Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of Viti
Levu.
Emalu & IBAs
Area
Native species
Endemic
Emalu
57km²
34
25
Greater Tomaniivi
175km²
34
24
Rairaimatuku
287km²
34
24
Sovi Basin
407km²
34
24
Viti Levu Southern Highlands
670km²
34
24
Table 1 shows that native bird species diversity in Emalu is comparable to Viti Levu’s
four largest Important Bird Areas (IBAs), and has a slightly higher number of
endemic species. In terms of species density it is the highest ever recorded for
anywhere in Fiji to date.
4.5 Recommendations
To better understand the ecology and abundance of the avifauna of Emalu there is a
need to carry out further monitoring work. To monitor the bird and Pteropus
samoensis populations, we recommend the use of the point count method with a fixed
50m radius and 8-10 minute counts per station. For best practice, future monitoring
surveys should include approximately 70 point count stations spread out over the
various vegetation systems present; cloud forest (10 stations), upland rainforest (20
stations), lowland rainforest (20 stations), grassland (10 stations), secondary forest(10
stations), and ensuring within these that there is coverage across the different subhabitats (riparian, flat, slope, ridge, and ridge-top).
To monitor for the other bat species a further survey of the area is needed to locate
the roosts, both in the area and the surrounding forest systems as it is most likely that
bats roosting outside the Emalu site will be flying in to forage for food, e.g. from the
P. tonganus roost at Vurunamasima near Navitilevu Village and the Notopteris
macdonaldi roost in Saweni (Navosa) and Nabukelevu (Serua). These roosts are both
about 10 km from the edge of the Emalu site. When the roosts are located, population
counts will be performed for monitoring purposes.
57
The Emalu REDD+ site should be an area of conservation priority for the
Government of Fiji. As yet Fiji has no dedicated bird reserve and it is recommended
that, given the species diversity and high endemism levels as well as its ideal
location, the Emalu area be designated an established protected bird area.
Conservation should be a priority and logging should not be permitted in this area if
you take into account the true value of the site ecosystem function, rich biodiversity,
cultural and spiritual importance, all of which are invaluable monetarily.
58
CHAPTER 5:
TERRESTRIAL INSECTS
Hilda Waqa-Sakiti
5.1 Summary
A total of 26 families of the target taxa Coleoptera (beetles) was recorded in the
Emalu areas, as well as a high abundance of the family Formicidae (ants). These taxa
provide critical ecosystem services in forests systems such as soil processing,
decomposition, herbivory, pollination and seed dispersal. Insects of conservation
value recorded from Emalu included: Hypolimnas inopinata (a rare and endemic
butterfly), Nysirus spinulosus and Cotylosoma dipneusticum (rare and endemic stick
insects) and Raiateana knowlesi (the rare and endemic cicada). These findings suggest
that the Emalu area is pristine and an important site for rare insects on Viti Levu.
5.2 Introduction
This was the first entomological survey to be conducted within the Emalu forest. A
baseline survey was carried out with the primary aim of determining the general
diversity of insects in the area. The survey targeted a diversity of habitats (slopes,
flats, ridges and riparian areas) and vegetation types (grassland, lowland, upland
and cloud forest). A variety of collection techniques (light traps, leaf litter sampling,
pitfall trapping, 1km transect counts, active and opportunistic surveys) was
employed. The general diversity of insects and those species of higher conservation
value (i.e. focal species) were sampled as an indicator of the status or health of the
forest in Emalu.
5.3 Methodology
Site selection and habitat considerations
A number of key habitat types (shown on Map 3 and Map 4) were surveyed to
maximise the chance of encountering individuals of focal species as well as to
adequately sample the diversity of insects;
•
Lowland forest areas: targeted specifically to find Fiji’s rare endemic
butterflies Papilio schmeltzi and Hypolimnas inopinata.
•
Upland forest areas: leaf litter sampling, pitfall traps and light traps on slopes
mainly targeted the general diversity of insects within this specific habitat.
Active searches for the endemic phasmids (stick insects) were also conducted.
•
Ridges: leaf litter sampling and light traps on ridges targeting the general
diversity of insects found within this specific habitat. A high diversity of
59
insects (and in particular the focal order Coleoptera) is indicative of intact
forest systems.
•
Riparian surveys in all vegetation types: These sruveys specifically targeted
butterflies (namely Fiji’s rare endemic butterfly, H. inopinata) and damselflies
(namely those of the endemic genus Nesobasis). These often fly out to open
areas on a fine day in search for sunlight and food, and usually aggregate
along the streams in forested areas. Their presence, abundance and richness
are excellent indicators of forest and stream systems in good health.
Survey methods and sites
Nocturnal surveys
Nocturnal surveys were conducted using ultra violet (UV) light traps. These were set
up and left to run for 12hour periods from 6pm-6am. Insect specimens were sorted to
Order and then to Family level. Specimens are currently being curated, catalogued
and stored at the South Pacific Regional Herbarium, USP.
Leaf Litter surveys
Leaf litter surveys were conducted targeting different habitat types (i.e. river flats,
slopes and ridges) in the lowland and upland vegetation types. 1m2 quadrats were
laid at 5m intervals along a 50m transect. Leaf litter from each quadrat was sieved
through 12mm mesh sieves and transferred into Winkler bags (Fig. 24 and Fig. 25).
The Winkler bags were hung out for at least 48 hours to allow drying of the leaf litter.
Insect specimens were stored in ethanol for further sorting and identification.
Pitfall Traps
Pitfall traps were set in varous habitat types (i.e. river flats, slopes and ridges) in the
lowland and upland forest areas. Pitfall traps were placed at 5m intervals along a
50m transect within the vegetation plots used by the botany team. Specimens were
collected and transferred into ethanol after 48 hours.
Active sampling- Lepidoptera (butterflies) and Odonates (damselflies)
Butterflies and damselflies were also actively sampled in open grassland and
riparian areas along creeks and streams using handheld nets. Voucher specimens
were taken for identification.
1km Transect Count Method
1 km transect counts were conducted for the indicator taxa Hypolimnas inopinata (for
abundance) and Odonata (damselfly) diversity along streams within the Mavuvu
and Waikarakarawa catchments.
60
Opportunistic Encounters
In addition to the survey methods described above, collections were made during the
course of the survey period in response to opportunistic encounters of interesting
taxa.
Identification and curation
Identification of specimens was carried out with the aid of available taxonomic
references for each of the main groups; butterflies and moths (Waterhouse, 1920,
Robinson, 1975, Prasad and Waqa-Sakiti, 2007), dragonflies and damselflies
(Donnelly, 1990, Van Gossum et al., 2006), ants (Folgarait, 1998), beetles (Lawrence
and Britton, 1994) and spiders (McGavin, 2000). The specimens are currently being
curated and catalogued at the South Pacific Regional Herbarium.
5.4 Results and discussion
Insect Diversity
The results of the insect survey of each catchment are provided in Appendix 10,
Appendix 11 and Appendix 12. A total of 26 Coleopteran (beetle) families were
sampled from within the entire study area. The most abundant taxa sampled
included the beetle families Curculionidae (weevils) and Scolytidae (bark beetles)
and from the Order Hymenoptera, Family Formicidae (ants). Rare beetle families:
Cerambycidae (long-horn beetles), Eucnemidae, Cantharidae, Lathrididae and
Passalidae were also encountered in the surveys. The great diversity of the target
taxa Coleoptera and the Hymenopteran family Formicidae are a good indication that
ecosystem services such as soil processing, decomposition, herbivory, pollination
and seed dispersal within the study area of the lowland, upland and cloud forests in
Emalu are well intact.
Another interesting find was in the order Odonata (i.e. damselflies). The endemic
genus Nesobasis were abundantly found along tributaries, creeks, stream and rivers
especially for the species Nesobasis angolicolis (Fig. 26), N. erythrops and N. heteroneura.
Their diversity along streams is an excellent indicator of good water quality and
intact status of neighbouring ecosystems. Moths sampled from light traps (nocturnal
surveys) were also significant especially for a few species which are native and
known to be restricted to primary forested areas i.e. Cleora diversa, Agathia pisina,
Pyrrhorachis pyrrhogona, Thallasodes figurate and Mecodina variata.
Focal Species
Hypolimnas inopinata (Order Lepidoptera)
Hypolimnas inopinata (Fig. 27 and Fig. 28) is a rare butterfly, endemic to the Fiji
Islands. It is a montane species and lives in rainforests. It is often found in or near
61
pristine mountain areas, usually in semi-open areas along streams leading up to the
mountains. Its presence and abundance has also proven to be a very good indicator
of the pristine nature of the rainforest system. H. inopinata was sampled along the
Nasa Creek, adjacent tributaries including the Wairovurovu stream (Tovatova
catchment), Waikutukutu stream (Waikarakarawa catchment) and the Wainasiga
stream and Wainasoba Creek (Mavuvu catchment) suggesting that these catchment
areas in Emalu are intact and pristine (i.e. sites P4, P7, P11 & P16, P26, P30, P31, P32,
P33, P39 & P40 on Map 8). Extent populations have only been located on Viti Levu in
the forests of Navai and Nasoqo (Ra Province) and Waisoi, Wainavadu and Saliadrau
(Namosi Province) and Naikorokoro (Rewa Province). This find is a first record for
the Navosa Province and the study area has a healthy population of this species.
Nysirus (syn. Cotylosoma) spinulosus and Cotylosoma dipneusticum (Order Phasmida)
Nysirus spinulosus (Fig. 29), a rare endemic stick insect was first described in 1877,
and previously recorded from Viti Levu, Fiji and only recently (i.e. 2008 & 2009) from
Nakauvadra and Nakorotubu ranges in the Ra Province. Cotylosoma dipneusticum is
another rare endemic stick insect and has been previously recorded from Taveuni
and Viti Levu (Nakorotubu range and Savura Forest Reserve). Both were sampled
from intact upland rainforests near Tovatova Creek, a tributary of the Nasa Creek
and upland forest within the Waikarakarawa catchment. From previous
observations, these two species of stick insects have been known to be closely
associated with such pristine forest systems (P13, 14, 15, 20, 21 on Map 8).
Raiateana knowlesi (Order Hemiptera: Family Cicadidae)
Raiateana knowlesi (Fig. 23) is an endemic and rare cicada with a unique life cycle in
which adults emerge every eight years (periodic emergence). The last appearance of
the adults was in 2009 from within this vicinity. It is locally known as nanai and has
been previously recorded from parts of the Serua and Navosa provinces. It is of great
cultural significance to the mataqali Emalu, being one of their ‘totem’ species. The
chiefly daughters of the mataqali are usually accorded the title Rokonai. Also the
year of emergence of the nanai signifies yabaki ni sautu, i.e. a year of plenty from
their agricultural produce. The tobu ni nanai, a sacred natural pool which provides
the final resting place for these endemic cicada is also located within the Nasa
catchment. The nanai also bears a national significance; it is the insect that is featured
on Fiji’s highest legal tender note ($100), an acknowledgment of the magnitude of its
importance.
5.5 Discussion and recommendations
The Emalu forest is of great significance as it harbors a good population for one of
Fiji’s rare and endemic butterflies, H. inopinata, owing to the pristine nature of its
habitat i.e. one of Fiji’s last remaining primary forests. More importantly, it is home
to one of Fiji’s rare and localised endemic cicada, Raiateana knowlesi (nanai) that has
62
both cultural significance (as the totem of the mataqali Emalu) and national
significance (as featured on Fiji’s $100 note).
This area is also significant for the Odonates (i.e. damselflies) which recorded a good
diversity along the Nasa Creek, Wainisiga stream, Wainikutukutu stream and
adjacent tributaries. This included the genus Nesobasis which is endemic to Fiji and
has radiated successfully in Fiji having a total of 36 species, a few of which are
currently new to science. With extensive sampling targeting this group within this
pristine inland forest of the Navosa Province, it is suspected that there may still be
species new to science within the Emalu area. This however warrants further
research.
With an overall high diversity of insects, it further suggests that ecosystem services
provided by the abundant and diverse Coleoptera (beetles, 26 families) and
Formicidae (ants) are well represented with forests systems being quite intact. These
groups of insects have proven to be excellent indicators of the forest and water
systems and their abundance and richness further suggests that much of the Emalu
forest area is pristine.
Recommendations
•
Sampling efforts within the study sites were compromised due to adverse
(rainy) weather conditions in some areas. A long-term monitoring and
seasonality study of the insects in Emalu is recommended.
•
The results of this suvey in terms of this area’s insect diversity and the
presence of focal and iconic species strongly support that Emalu be identified
as a Key Biodiversity Area for Fiji.
63
CHAPTER 6:
FRESHWATER FISHES
Lekima Copeland
6.1 Summary
A total of ten species of fish from eight genera and six families were recorded in the
Emalu site through sampling and interviews. Three species were documented from
the Gobiidae family (Awaous guamensis, Sicyopus zosterophorum, Sicyopterus
lagocephalus). In addition two species of eels from the family Anguillidae were also
collected (Anguilla marmorata and Anguilla megastoma) as well as the freshwater snake
eel from the family Opicthidae (Lamnostoma kampeni). Mavuvu mid reach had an
exceptionally high abundance and biomass of jungle perch (Kuhlia rupestris)
compared to other streams in Fiji. Also documented were the introduced exotic
species tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) family Cichilidae. Notable absences around the
headwaters of Nasa Creek were the gobies Stiphodon spp. and the monkey river
prawn Macrobrachium lar. No endemic species were observed or caught during this
survey. Water quality was well within habitable range in terms of dissolved oxygen,
conductivity, temperature and turbidity across all sampling stations. The introduced
tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) are present in mid and lower reach sites and may account
for the low abundance and diversity of native stream fishes. Around areas of human
habitation there is evidence of the removal of riparian buffer zones as well as
unrestricted livestock access to waterways which, coupled with uncontrolled slash
and burn activity has exacerbated environmental degradation in these areas. The use
of Derris roots (a traditional fish poison) is also a common problem seen throughout
the survey area. Reforestation of buffer zones and the setting of a riparian buffer
width for agricultural or development purposes are reccommended.
6.2 Introduction
The freshwater fishes of the Fiji Islands have only been extensively studied in the last
decade, by various researchers that have discovered species new to science and
elucidated some of the various factors affecting these insular fish assemblages
(Jenkins and Boseto, 2005, Boseto, 2006, Boseto and Jenkins, 2006, Jenkins, 2009,
Jenkins and Mailautoka, 2010, Larson, 2010, Jenkins and Jupiter, 2011). On a global
scale the freshwater fishes of Fiji have been recently recognised in terms of endemic
species per unit land area (Abell et al., 2008). The oceanic islands of the Pacific are
distinct from continental land masses in that they have developed unique freshwater
fish assemblages that have important ecological linkages between marine and
freshwater environments (McDowall, 2008a). In Fiji, 166 species (47 families) have
been recorded from tidal reaches upwards, with 156 of these (43 families) indigenous
to Fiji (Jenkins, 2009). Ten species (4 families) have established invasive or nonindigenous populations in the wild although at least fifteen non-indigenous species
64
have been introduced (Jenkins, 2009). At least eleven species (in 3 families), which
constitute 7% of freshwater fish in Fiji, are considered endemic.
This survey constitutes the first documented work carried out on freshwater fishes
for Nasa River, but work has been undertaken previously in neighbouring water
systems. King (2004) documented several species of fish and invertebrates in the
neighboring Solikana stream. The species documented by her were Kuhlia marginata,
K. rupestris (flagtails), Anguilla sp. (eels), gobys (Gobiidae family), Oreochromis
niloticus, O. mossambicus (tilapia) and an eel. The eel that King recorded as
Archirophichthys kamperi is most likely Lamnostoma kampeni.
Invertebrate species such as several crustacean species of Macrobrachium spp.
(Paleomonidae) were also noted by King (2004). In the lower reaches of the Sigatoka
River, Fowler (1953) based on two badly damaged specimens described a presumed
endemic genus of freshwater fish collected from hoof print puddles Lairdina
hopletupus, (Eleotridae, Fig. 31). However the voucher specimens have since been
redescribed and this species is now known as Giuris margaritacea.
The Mavuvu River drains into the Navua River, where previous research by Jenkins
& Boseto (2003) within the Upper Navua River Conservation Area documented
thirteen species, including two Fiji endemic species i.e. Redigobius leveri and
Schismatogobius vitiensis, and an introduced species Oreochromis mossambicus.
6.3 Methodology
Due to the remoteness of the study area, several methods of gathering data were
used. The field methods described herein were designed to enable the most
comprehensive documentation of fishes present in Emalu. A portable Global
Positioning System (Garmin eTrex 20) was used to take the position and altitude of
the sampling sites. A map of the study area and several pictures of the locations
sampled are provided (Map 9, Fig. 35 - Fig. 38).
Physiochemical parameters
Before fishing commenced water quality parameters were recorded to minimise
disturbances to in-situ water quality characteristics. Temperature, pH, conductivity,
salinity and dissolved oxygen were measured using a commercial hand held GPS
Aquameter and AP-1000 Aquaprobe.
In-stream fish sampling
The beach seine (3m x 2m, 1mm mesh) was set several meters downstream and held
by two people. Upstream, one person kicked and dislodge rubbled to enable the
collection of bottom dwelling fish. This was done for about an hour, over
approximately a 100m stretch of stream. To get a thorough documentation of species
presence or absence, snorkeling was also undertaken in streams sampled. This was
65
also aided by visual observations on the side of the stream bank, as some species of
the gobies are easily distinguishable due to their bright colors. Opportunistic
collections and interviews with villagers were also documented.
Preservation
Voucher specimens were collected, fixed in a 10% formalin solution and transferred
to 70% ethanol solution after five days of fixation. Voucher specimens were
deposited at the University of the South Pacific marine collection.
6.4 Results and discussion
Species richness and abundance
Overall a total of six species of fish were directly observed or collected during this
survey (Appendix 13). There was high species richness near villages compared to the
headwaters of Nasa stream. This is characteristic of insular systems of Oceania where
this attenuation in species richness with increase in altitude has been documented by
Jenkins & Jupiter (2011). Three of the species collected were from the Gobiidae family
i.e. Sicyopus zosterophorum (Fig. 32), S. lagocephalus and Awaous guamensis. In addition,
two species of eels (family Anguillidae) were also collected, Anguilla marmorata and
Anguilla megastoma. The jungle perch, Kuhlia rupestris, was also collected. A further
four species were documented from village interviews as being present in the area
i.e. Kulia marginata, Oreochromis niloticus, Eleotris fusca, and Lamnostoma kampeni.
Upper reaches of the Nasa stream
The headwater sections surveyed ranged in altitude from 500-570m. The freshwater
fish found at this altitude are characteristic of upper catchments on oceanic islands of
the Indo-West Pacific. The native species Sicyopus zosterophorum and S. lagocephalus
found here are known as amphidromous fish in which the adults spawn in
freshwater, fertilised eggs hatch within a period of 48 hours. Larvae are transported
to the sea for several weeks of growth and then return upstream (as post-larvae or
juveniles) to complete their lifecycle (McDowall, 2008b). These two species are hardy
fish and are ubiquitous in geographic range. Both are capable of surmounting large
barriers such as waterfalls and can survive in degraded catchments.
There were also two native species of catadromous eels found at this altitude
(Anguilla marmorata and Anguilla megatsoma). Catadromous species are those in which
adults migrate to sea to breed. The juvenile eels then return upstream for more
feeding and growth before returning to sea to complete their lifecycle (McDowall,
2008a). On the last day of the survey a total of 55 eels were caught by villagers (Fig.
30) in Wainirovurovu stream. It is highly likely that traditional fish poison (Derris
roots) were used to catch these eels.
66
The use of traditional fish poison and other chemicals occurs in inland fishing
communities. A study undertaken in Nawairabe Village (about 10 km west of Emalu)
found that 2.2% of households blamed the use of Derris roots and other fishsuffocants for the depletion of fish but “excessive burning (46.7%); and the associated soil
erosion in the wet season (17.8%) were by far the most important environmental problems in
Nawairabe” (King, 2004).
Mid to lower reaches of the Emalu area within and outside the boundary
There were no mid and lower reach sites sampled during this survey though some
visual observations around Navitilevu settlement found the native goby S.
lagocephalus. Informal interviews with villagers recorded native species such Kuhlia
marginata, Awaous guamensis, Eleotris fusca, Lamnostoma kampeni and the introduced
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. The presence of these species can only be confirmed
using proper survey techniques such as electrofishing around this site.
A total of eleven jungle perch Kuhlia rupestris (Fig. 33) were caught around mid
Mavuvu. The size of these fishes ranged from 11 to 39cm. This mid-reach site just
below the waterfall is traditionally known as sukasuka ni ika droka, a natural barrier
to fish migration (Fig. 34). Only those species adapted to climbing are able to
surmount such barriers. This area within Emalu is an important area in terms of fish
biomass and strict measures must be taken to protect it from over-fishing and
unsustainable practices such as the use of Derris roots.
Water Quality
Results of the on-site measurements are tabulated in Appendix 14. Temperature at
the sites was between 19.7°C and 20.4°C. Dissolved oxygen levels were fairly high,
above 8mg/L, making it readily available for fish at the six stations sampled.
Conductivity at all sites ranged from 0.047-0.084µS which is well within the suitable
habitat range for stream fish. Turbidity was very low at all sites (<10 NTU), and the
bottom was visible at all the stations.
6.5 Conclusion and recommendations
The proper management and use of aquatic resources in Emalu entails a holistic
approach due to life-history strategies employed by aquatic fauna that traverse
different habitats throughout their life. It is true that management must begin at the
catchment level; however, it goes hand in hand with the protection of marine and
coastal habitats such as reefs, seagrass meadows, mangrove habitats, including lower
and mid sections of rivers and streams. This survey did not find any endemic
species, for several reasons such as degradation of buffer zones along mid-reach
sites, the high number of introduced species such as tilapia which is known to prey
on the larval species of native fauna and the possible use of Derris roots in the
streams surveyed.
67
The following are suggestions for the proper management and conservation of
aquatic fauna in Emalu:
1. The first priority is protection of the catchment areas of the Sigatoka River.
The headwaters should be set up as a protected area with a complete ban on
slash-and-burn techniques around the catchments.
2. Secondly, the other major issue identified is the importance of restoring buffer
zones around mid-reach sites. This will also require the proper education of
farmers (landowners) on setting up farms near rivers, and the importance of a
buffer width and restricting livestock access across streams.
3. A complete ban should be in place on the use of poison for fish capture. Derris
roots, weedicides and pesticides should be banned in Emalu.
4. The need for proper waste management care. In the three villages visited, the
use of flush toilets is strongly recommended. Villagers have running tap water
and flush toilets should be implemented for all households.
5. Pit toilets in the village need to be built away from the stream. The majority of
the toilets seen across the villages are built on sandy areas within the vicinity
of the stream and are directly leaching into the stream.
68
CHAPTER 7: FRESHWATER
MACROINVERTEBRATES
Bindiya Rashni
7.1 Summary
A total of 76 freshwater macroinvertebrate taxa were identified from the 16,370
specimens collected. Of these 76 taxa, a total of 57 (75%) were endemic to Fiji, most of
them insects. A total of fourteen macroinvertebrate taxa were selected as potential
bioindicators. These include four species of mayfly larvae (Ephemeroptera: two
Pseudocloeon spp. and two Cloeon spp.); two species of damselfly larvae (Odonata:
Nesobasis “orangish”, Nesobasis “dark green”); four species of caddisfly larvae
(Trichoptera: Apsilochorema “light green”, Hydrobiosis “pinkish”, Hydrobiosis “green”
and Chimarra sp.); one cranefly larvae (Tipulidae: Tipula sp.); one snail (Fluviopupa
spp.); one nematode worm (unknown species) and one moth larvae (Lepidoptera:
unknown species). The high number of endemic taxa recorded, together with a large
number of species with large populations, is indicative of the intactness of both the
stream system and the surrounding forest.
7.2 Introduction
The freshwater macroinvertebrate fauna of Fiji is currently represented by 45
families, namely; 25 families of insects, eight families of molluscs, four families of
crustaceans, three families of segmented worms, two families of nematodes, two
families of sponges, and one family of flatworms (Haynes, 1988, Haynes, 1999,
Haynes, 2001, Jeng et al., 2003, Haynes, 2009). Many of these are yet to be fully
described to genus and species level and many aquatic insect larvae need to be
matched with their described flying adults.
Prior to this study, no surveys had been carried out to identify the composition of
macroinvertebrate communities within the waterways of this study site or their
tributaries. There is, however, some documentation of previous macroinvertebrate
surveys in other waterways of Viti Levu.
Three tributaries of the upper Sigatoka River (which is located about 23km from
Emalu) were surveyed for possible effects of the Sigatoka-Ba hydropower dam.
Damselfly and mayfly species were noted to be of very sensitive nature to this
development (Haynes, 2004).
In Namosi province macroinvertebrate composition from an unlogged catchment
drained by Wainikovu Creek (23km from Emalu) was compared to that of
Nabukavesi Creek in a logged catchment. After five years, the abundance of
69
invertebrates in both streams was the same except Nabukavesi Creek had lost five
species which had been present in sparse populations prior to logging and
Wainikovu Creek had more species of an endemic genus of damselfly, Nesobasis spp
(Haynes, 1999). A survey of Lake Monasavu revealed the presence of damselfly
nymphs (Nesobasis spp.) prior to dam construction. But eight years after the dam
construction, the damselfly nymph species were wiped out (Haynes, 1994).
These studies were conducted in areas outside the Emalu catchment boundary.
Therefore the present study represents the first detailed and comprehensive study of
freshwater macroinvertebrates and aquatic habitat within the three catchments of
Emalu; Tovatova, Mavuvu and Waikarakarawa.
The key objectives of the study were:
To provide a comprehensive list of taxa.
Describe community structure.
Identify taxa that are unique, rare and endangered in Fiji.
Identify taxa that can be used as indicators of environmental changes.
This report also provides information relating to water physiochemistry and
invertebrate habitats which will assist with interpretation of freshwater
macroinvertebrate results and identify potential areas of monitoring interest related
to the identified biological indicative taxa.
7.3 Methodology
Survey Stations
During the first phase of the Emalu survey (July 2012), three main stations were
sampled within Tovatova catchment inclusive of the upstream Nasa Creek and its
tributary, Wainirovurovu Creek. During the second phase of the survey (March
2013), six main stations were sampled within the Mavuvu and Waikarakarawa
catchments, including the headwaters of Mavuvu River (Qalibovitu stream), the Mid
Mavuvu River (Wainasoba Stream) and Waikarakarawa Creek. The descriptions of
the sampling stations are summarised in Appendix 15 and their locations shown in
Map 10.
The area is densely forested with numerous tributaries connected to the main
riparian systems; Nasa Creek and Mavuvu River. The mid to upper portion of the
Nasa Creek is a medium to high gradient undisturbed stream with well vegetated,
highly stable bank and good or moderate canopy cover providing suitable habitat
conditions for thriving freshwater community. The mid Mavuvu River tributary
(Wainasoba Creek) and upper Mavuvu River tributary (Qalibovitu Creek) are
70
undisturbed waterways with well-vegetated, stable to highly stable banks and good
or moderate canopy cover, providing suitable habitat conditions for thriving
freshwater communities.
Water physiochemistry
Water physiochemical parameters were measured at each sampling station using a
calibrated multi-water quality meter (Aquaread AV 1000). Parameters measured
included temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity (milisiemens per
centimeter (mS/cm), pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), turbidity (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units (NTU)) and salinity.
Habitat characteristics and aquatic flora
Habitat characteristics were assessed along 20m reaches per site to assist with
interpretation of macroinvertebrate community data. The following habitat data was
either measured or visually estimated and recorded on a standard habitat assessment
form:
Channel Description:
Wetted width and water depth – channel width (m) was measured using a 30m
measuring tape. Water depth (m) at wadeable sites was measured using a calibrated
meter ruler or estimated at sites that were too deep (i.e. >1m).
Water velocity – velocity was calculated by timing how many seconds a specimen
bottle cap took to travel over a set distance of three metres. This procedure was
repeated three times and averaged to give a mean velocity for each site.
Habitat type – the relative proportion of each habitat type (e.g. run, riffle, pool and
chute) present at each site was visually estimated.
Streambed substrate – streambed substrate composition was assessed at each sampling
station. Assessment procedure involved measuring approximately 100 sediment
particles following the Wolman scale (Wolman, 1954). Size classes included bedrock,
boulder (>256mm), large cobble (128-256mm), small cobble (64-128mm), large gravel
(32-64mm), medium-large gravel (16-32mm), small-medium gravel (8-16mm), small
gravel (2-8mm) and sand/silt (<2mm). Gravel size classes were combined into a
single gravel class (2-64mm) for easier data presentation.
Streambank stability – this involved visual characterisation of streambank stability at
each site as (i.e. stable, partially stable or unstable).
Organic matter present – observation of woody debris, leaf litter and detritus at
sampling stations. This provides an indication of potential food availability for
certain macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups or additional stable habitat.
71
Riparian character and channel shade – at each sampling station, a general assessment of
percentage channel shade and the riparian vegetation characteristics was carried out.
Periphytons (algae) – visual estimation of present streambed periphyton cover (%) and type
(i.e. film, mat, filamentous) and colour (i.e. green, light brown, dark brown, reddish)
at wadeable sampling sites.
Macrophytes (aquatic plants) – an assessment of macrophyte streambed cover and
species present at sampling stations
Macroinvertebrate sampling
Macroinvertebrate samples were collected using both quantitative and qualitative
survey methods to allow an assessment of macroinvertebrate density at selected
stations and to compile a list of suitable taxa as potential bioindicators for future
monitoring. The quantitative and qualitative sampling methods were adapted from
Stark et al. (2001) and modified to suit the time constraints and objectives of this
particular survey. They are described as follows:
Quantitative assessment – This is a quantitative method that provides a measure of
macroinvertebrate density is adapted and modified from Protocol C3 (Stark et al.
2001). Two replicate Surber samples (area 0.1m², 0.5 mm mesh) were collected from
riffle habitats at stony streambed sites. A riffle is a shallow area (water depth ≤0.5m)
where water flows swiftly over stones, creating surface turbulence. Surber samples
were collected from the Nasa Creek and its tributary, Wainirovurovu stream in
Tovatova catchment and Waikarakarawa Creek in Waikarakarawa catchment.
Samples were collected by placing the Surber sampler over a defined area of
streambed in riffle habitat and disturbing the habitat by washing the particles with
the water flowing through the net to collect dislodged macroinvertebrates. A sample
was also quantitatively collected using a kick-net sampler in Wainasoba Creek
(WSLQT), collecting from same surface area as that of Surber sampler.
Qualitative assessment – a single sample was collected from each sampling station
either via kick-net or visually inspecting slow flowing edge habitats for taxa that
prefer these habitats (e.g. snails and damselflies). Typical habitats sampled included
runs, riffles, chutes, pool edges, trifles, woody debris, leaf litter, stream edges, and
tree roots along banks, streambank vegetation and sand/silt substrates.
Macroinvertebrate samples collected from the Surber sampler, kick-net or hand
collection were placed into 250ml specimen jars with 70% ethanol for sorting and
identification by the author. New taxa were verified by Dr. Haynes. The guides
referenced in the identification process included; Haynes (2009), Haynes (in prep.),
Haase et al. (2006), Williams (1980) Winterbourn et al. (2006), and Nandlal (unpub).
Identified macroinvertebrates were placed for preservation in small vials containing
70% ethanol for long term storage.
72
Data analysis
Community composition and structure: the combined Surber and opportunistic data
set was used to calculate the relative abundance of the main taxonomic groups.
Macroinvertebrate density: an assessment was made of macroinvertebrate density in
riffle habitats at selected stony streambed sites based on quantitative Surber sample
data by multiplying the mean Surber sample abundance data (per 0.1m2) by a factor
of ten to give abundance/m2.
Status and distribution of taxa: taxa were classified as either endemic to Fiji, native to
other regions (e.g. Pacific, South Pacific, Indo-Pacific, Fiji-Australia and South East
Asia), introduced tropical species or other (i.e. marine, worldwide).
Focal species/ taxa of interest: macroinvertebrate taxa of potential interest for being
key indicators of environmental change in the catchment were selected.
7.4 Results
Water physiochemistry
The water physicochemistry parametres measured at the different stations are
summarised in Appendix 16. Waterways sampled ranged from almost neutral to
slightly acidic. The freshwater macroinvertebrate communities described in this
study are unlikely to be significantly affected by pH values within this range.
Conductivity is a measure of the total ions in water and ranged between 0.084 mS/cm
in the mid Mavuvu (MLVQT) and 0.047 mS/cm in the upper Nasa (NU1QT).
Turbidity (NTU) is a measurement of particles in the water column and provides an
indication of water clarity. Turbidity values ranged between 0 NTU in the
Wainirovurovu Creek sites (WRD2QT & WRU3QT) and Mavuvu catchment streams
(WKQT, WSLQT & QB1QL) to 5.8 NTU in the Nasa Creek (NU1QT). Turbidity in
Nasa Creek was higher due to heavy rainfall the night prior to surveying. Though
turbidity above 5 NTU signifies poor water quality; this was a temporary impact and
water clarity had returned to normal by late afternoon with NTU of less than 5. In
Wainirovurovu Creek (WRD2QT & WRU3QT), turbidity values were 0 NTU, which
signifies excellent water quality for macroinvertebrate survival as well as the absence
of sediment-raising activities in the catchment.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged between 8.27g/m3 in Waikarakarawa Stream
(WKQT) and 8.99 g/m3 in Nasa Stream (NU1QT) All dissolved oxygen concentrations
were above the level considered sufficient for macroinvertebrate survival (i.e. >5 /m3).
This was due to unaltered waterway hydrology allowing suitable water flow coupled
with sufficient canopy cover to reduce excess temperature and highly stable bank
reducing any sedimentation impacts. Salinity measurements at the survey stations
73
demonstrated levels that are expected in the headwaters of any tropical inland
stream.
Habitat Characteristics
The aquatic habitat and riparian characteristics of the stations surveyed are
summarised and presented in Appendix 17. The streambed of waterways surveyed
was dominated by cobble/gravel and sand and provided a diverse stable habitat for
the macroinvertebrate community (Graph 1).
100%
Silt/sand
Streambed compostion (%)
90%
80%
Small gravel
70%
Small-medium gravel
60%
50%
Medium-large gravel
40%
Large gravel
30%
Small cobble
20%
Large cobble
10%
0%
Boulder
Bedrock
Stations
Graph 1. Streambed composition at sampling stations.
Periphyton
Thin light/dark brown films (<0.5mm) (i.e., 40-80% cover) was the most common
form of periphyton recorded at sampling stations with stony streambeds. This
periphyton type is a source of food directly or indirectly for macroinvertebrates and
fishes in streams.
Macroinvertebrate density
A summary of the freshwater macroinvertebrates collected and their abundance is
presented in Appendix 18 (Surber sampling) and Appendix 19 (opportunistic
collections). The abundance is given as numbers of individuals, and is also grouped
into abundance categories as follows: very abundant (>100), abundant (20-99),
common (5-19), few (2-4) and very few (1). The overall (all taxa) abundance ranged
from 2049 individuals/m2 at Waikarakarawa Creek downstream (WKQT) to 3686
individuals/m2 in Nasa Creek upstream (NU1QT).
Insect larvae/nymphs were the most dominant taxa at all three sites (Graph 2). This
was strongly represented by caddisfly, mayfly and dipteran larvae. This result is
typical of the headwaters of tropical inland streams with intact or pristine
74
catchments. Insect larvae are well adapted to fast flowing waters of stream/river
headwaters, compared to crustaceans and molluscs which are found in higher
numbers in lower reaches of streams/rivers with swifter flows. The small Fluviopupa
(<4 mm) snails were also recorded as abundant at two sites and very abundant at one
site. These particular gastropods are usually catchment endemic and found in higher
densities in headwaters with narrow channels, swift flows and very clean water.
They have been found to be only present in streams undisturbed from cattle/horse
grazing. Hence they were abundant in the intact waterways surveyed. The moth
larvae (Nymphula spp.) also ranged from abundant to very abundant at two stations.
They are known to be found in higher densities in streams with adequate algal film
covering stream substrata and open-partial canopy shading and good water quality;
hence there abundance in these streams.
100%
Mollusca
Community Composition (%)
90%
Annelida
80%
70%
Arachnida
60%
Coleoptera
50%
Hemiptera
40%
Odonata
30%
Diptera
20%
Lepidoptera
10%
0%
Trichoptera
NU1QT WRD2QT WRU3QT
WKQT
MVLQT
Ephemeroptera
Sampling stations
Graph 2. Community composition by major taxonomic group.
The macroinvertebrate communities documented were typical of pristine/intact
inland tropical stream headwaters. The waterways sampled provided suitable
habitats for diverse taxa composition. The sites surveyed had coarse stony streambed
substrates and a high proportion of turbulent riffle/chute habitats, which resulted in
caddisflies (Trichoptera) being the most dominant group at the majority of stations,
followed by mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and flies (Diptera). These groups combined to
give 95% (NU1QT), 98% (WRD2QT), 85% (WRU3QT) and 98% (WKQT) of the total
species recorded (Graph 2). An exception to this pattern is at site MVLQT whereby
the Mollusca group was more abundant than the Diptera, and togther with the
Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera comprised 80% of species composition.
75
100%
Abacaria fijiana
Pseudocloeon sp.
90%
Cloeon sp.
Abacaria ruficeps
80%
Anisocentropus fijianus
Goera fijiana
Community Composition (%)
70%
Hydrobiosis
Odontoceridae
60%
Chimarra sp.
Rhyacophilidae
Hydroptilidae
50%
Nymphula sp.
Chironominae spp.
40%
Tanypodinae sp.
Dixidae
30%
Simulium spp.
Tipulidae spp.
20%
Nesobasis sp. A
Hydraenidae sp.
10%
Empididae
Nemobiinae sp.
0%
NU1QT WRD2QT WRU3QT
WKQT
MVLQT
Nematode spp.
Fluviopupa spp.
Sampling stations
Others
Graph 3. Community composition by taxa.
The most abundant caddisfly taxon recorded was the net-spinning filter-feeder
Abacaria fijiana. This species were most abundant in riffle habitats at Mid Mavuvu
tributary, Wainasoba Creek (WSLQT) and Wainirovurovu downstream (WRD3QT)
where they represented between 40 and 43% of total abundance respectively. Other
caddisfly larvae such as A. ruficeps, Odontoceridae, Hydroptilidae and Chimarra sp.
were also common or abundant but represented less than 9% of total abundance.
Chimarra sp. was recorded in highest proportions in the Nasa Creek (NU1QT) and
Wainasoba Creek, in the downstream Mavuvu (WSLQT).
Mayflies were also a dominant taxonomic group recorded at survey sites and
represented 69% of the community in the Waikarakawa Creek and 30% in the Nasa
Creek (NU1QT). The most abundant mayfly taxon was Pseudocloeon sp. This is
because Pseudocloeon sp. has a dorso-ventrally flattened body that allows it to graze
on thin algal films covering the surfaces of large boulder/cobble substrates in
turbulent riffle/chute habitats. In contrast, Cloeon spp. mayflies which are mostly
associated with gentle flowing habitats and are more common along stream margins
and runs were recorded in much lower proportions across the sites. Therefore many
Cloeon spp. were part of the opportunistic collection.
76
Conservation status and distribution of taxa
Status & distribution
A total of 57 of the macroinvertebrate taxa recorded as part of the survey were
endemic to Fiji and represented 75% of the total number of taxa recorded (Graph 4).
Endemic/Native
Native, Pacific
75%
3%
9%
Native, Indo-Pacific
Introduced,tropics
3%
Unknown
11%
0
20
40
60
80
Percentage of total taxa
Graph 4. Status and distribution of taxa across all sites.
Apart from a few unique specimens (~15), many of the endemic taxa recorded are
common throughout the headwaters of Fiji Island streams. The remaining 15% of
taxa were either native to Fiji, the Pacific or the Indo-Pacific region, or introduced
tropical species or unknown species.
Graph 5 shows the total number of taxa recorded at each sampling station and their
status/distribution shown as a proportion of total taxa richness within each
community. The number of endemic/native taxa recorded at sampling stations as
part of quantitative survey ranged between 14 endemic/native taxa at
Waikarakarawa stream (WKQT) to 27 at Wainirovurovu upstream (WRU3QT). This
amounted to 88% and 90% of the total taxa per sites respectively; highlighting that
endemic species are the dominant taxa at all sites. The majority of endemic/native
taxa recorded were insects; inclusive of both qualitative and quantitative collection
(53 taxa in total). Other endemic taxa recorded were the small (<4mm) snail
Fluviopupa spp. and nereid and nematode worms. A single juvenile specimen of the
introduced tropical snail Melanoides tuberculata was also found in riffle habitat at
Nasa stream (NU1QT) of Tovatova catchment, although no adults were observed
around the edges of streams during the qualitative survey. This could possibly be an
inadvertent introduction into the stream via footwear worn by villagers/surveyors.
This tropical snail was however present in adult and juvenile sizes along the sides of
stream channel at Waikarakarawa stream and Wainasoba Creek. The common
introduced mosquitoe larvae (Culicidae) was found at Wainirovurovu stream. These
species are usually limited to stagnant waters (pools) in streams but due to the
previous night’s rainfall they might have been washed into the riffles.
77
35
Qualitative sampling
Quantitative sampling
Number of Taxa
30
Endemic/Native
25
Native, Pacific
20
25
15
25
27
10
22
17
27
Native, Indo-Pacific
22
10
Introduced,tropics
14
Unknown
13
5
6
2
1
0
Sampling stations
Graph 5. Status and distribution of taxa across individual sites.
A lower number of endemic taxa were observed as part of the quantitative survey at
Waikarakarawa Creek (WKQT) (14 taxa) and Wainasoba Creek (WSLQT) (17 taxa).
The qualitative survey at both stations (WKQL & WSLQL) showed a high increase in
endemic/native taxa. This is probably due to species becoming habitat specific with
changing physical parameters such as an increase in flow with increasing elevation
and steepness coupled with a decrease in channel width. Damselflies, shrimps and
some caddisfly species were more abundant on the sides of the streams which
supported slow flows, compared to riffles with swift flows. The sides of the streams
also had mass fibrous roots extended into the channel that provided habitats for
damselflies, shrimps, whirligig beetles and some caddisfly species.
Focal species / taxa of interest
Certain macroinvertebrate taxa that were recorded during the surveys and that may
be of potential ecological interest are shown in Fig. 45 - Fig. 61. These highly sensitive
species are typical of pristine streams draining intact watersheds. Furthermore, some
of these taxa, such as Fluviopupa spp., Nesobasis “orangish”, the unknown moth
larvae and the nematode worm, have a very high chance of being catchment endemic
or localised endemic.
7.5 Discussion
Dense forest cover, intact riparian zone and highly stable banks along these rivers
and their tributaries provide suitable conditions for a thriving freshwater
macroinvertebrate community. Dense forests ensure enough volume and clear water
entering the creeks and tributaries; maintaining a natural state of waterway
hydrology to provide different habitats such as runs, riffles, pools and chutes
coupled with appropriate streambed substrates and good water quality. Intact
riparian vegetation acted as an excellent buffer zone for any sediment intrusion from
land, thereby maintaining water quality. Adequate canopy cover along waterway
78
edges provide for shade to control water temperature, leaf litter for nutrient cycle,
sufficient light for algal cover (food for macroinvertebrates) on stream substrata,
while native tree roots, shrubs, ferns and big boulders ensured bank stability. At
Waikarakarawa Creek a few cases of natural landslides were observed, while
Qalibovitu upstream had more than six cases of landslides. These landslides caused
large trees to fall in the waterways which altered the waterway hydrology but also
provided additional habitats via branches, leaf litter and twigs. The landslides also
caused abrasion of stream banks resulting in the addition of sediment to the
streambed. However, this impact is a temporary one.
The freshwater macroinvertebrate community of Emalu (in total 76 taxa) showed that
the endemic taxa were the most dominant with insects making up the majority of the
taxa. This is typical of pristine inland tropical riverine system headwaters. In
comparison with other studies in pristine headwater catchments (by the author), 27
taxa were identified from Wainavadu Creek and the headwaters of the Waidina
River in Namosi and Naitasiri Provinces, and 32 taxa were identified from the
Wainibuka River headwaters in the Nakauvadra Range. Waterways in the Emalu
area therefore supports much higher taxa richness (almost threefold more) than other
creek/river headwaters that have been surveyed in Viti Levu.
A total of fourteen macroinvertebrate taxa collected as part of the survey may be of
potential ecological interest. These include four species of mayfly nymphs
(Ephemeroptera: two Pseudocloeon spp. and two Cloeon spp.), two species of
damselfly nymphs (Odonata: Nesobasis “orangish” & Nesobasis “dark green”), four
species of caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera: Apsilochorema “light green” , Hydrobiosis
“pinkish” sp., Hydrobiosis sp. “green” and Chimarra sp.), one Cranefly larvae
(Tipulidae: Tipula sp.), one snail (Fluviopupa spp. (< 4mm), one nematode worm
(Unknown 1 sp.) and one moth larvae (Lepidoptera: Unknown 2 sp.). These highly
sensitive species are very good bioindicators. They are also typical of pristine streams
draining intact watersheds. In addition special taxa such as rissooidean snails
(Fluviopupa spp.), Nesobasis “orangish”, the unknown moth larvae and the nematode
worm are very likely to be catchment endemic or area endemic species. Fluviopupa
snails, ten species of which are already known to be endemic to Fiji, have restricted
distribution and are usually catchment endemic, inhabiting springs and small creeks
or riffles (Haase et al., 2006).
The slender red headed (Pseudocloeon sp. A) and the dark brown (Cloeon sp. A)
mayfly nymphs also have a high chance of being catchment endemic species. The
nematode worm has only been found in the Wainrovurovu tributary and not in Nasa
Creek, possibly due to the narrower stream channel and the difference in water
depth. Since the catchment is unimpacted by cattle grazing, these worms have
naturally been part of the freshwater macroinvertebrate community or may have
been introduced by birds etc. The orangish damselfly nymph and the moth larvae
(Black with orangish spots and prolegs) have been encountered for the first time.
These two taxa have not been observed in any streams surveyed prior to this survey.
79
However, these are only the larval stage and have not been matched with the adult
stage as yet. Therefore it cannot be confirmed if they are new species or not. In
addition, the amphipod and the caridean shrimps (Caridina sp. B-F) found in
Qalibovitu Creek QB1QL and QB2QL have a very great chance of being new species
as they do not resemble the crustaceans described so far from Fiji or Asia.
80
CHAPTER 8:
INVASIVE SPECIES
Isaac Rounds and Sarah Pene
8.1 Summary
Trapping and opportunistic surveys were used to record the presence and
abundance of invasive plants and animals in the Nasa, Mavuvu and Waikarakarawa
catchments of the mataqali Emalu forests, Viti Levu. The checklist of 26 invasive
plants and eleven invasive animals recorded as present in the area includes thirteen
species which are listed in the 100 most invasive species in the world, namely;
Plants: Spathodea campanulata, Mikania micrantha, Leucaena leucocephala, Lantana
camara, Imperata cylindrica, Arundo donax and Clidemia hirta.
Animals: Rattus rattus, Sus scrofa, Felis cattus, Pycnonotus cafer, Bufo marinus and
Herpestes auropunctatus.
In general the occurrence and abundance of invasive species in the Emalu boundary
was associated with proximity to human habitation and to disturbed areas such as
tracks, temporary campsites and cultivated areas. The invasive plant species were
generally low in abundance, with the exception of Piper aduncum which was locally
common, and Clidemia hirta and Mikania micrantha which were both widespread.
The faunal component of the invasive species was comprised primarily of the most
common (and most serious) global invasives such as rats, mongooses, mynah birds
and cane toads, as well as feral animals of domesticated species, such as cats, dogs
and pigs. Some invasive animal species such as the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans),
the Norwegian rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the house mouse (Mus musculus) were not
observed directly in the field but they were reported by the guides to be present in
and around the villages in the area.
8.2 Introduction
Because of their isolation and relatively recent human occupation, Pacific islands are
especially vulnerable to invasive species, to such an extent that invasive species are
the primary cause of the extinction of island native species (Tye, 2009). Previous
work from numerous authors has focussed on documenting their presence and to
some extent their distribution and abundance within Fiji.
Pernetta and Watling (1978) compiled a list of native and introduced vertebrates
which included reptiles. Since then monitoring of some of the major invasives have
revealed new additions for example, a second mongoose species (Morley et al., 2007).
Some species (rats, mongooses and goats) have also been the target of concerted
eradication efforts on some smaller islands to protect native biodiversity.
81
In terms of invasive plants, 52 species have been identified as being present in Fiji
(Meyer, 2000). These have been classified under three groups according to their
degree of invasiveness, namely: thirteen dominant invaders, seventeen medium
invaders and 22 potential invaders. For some of these individual species, such as
Mikania micrantha (Macanawai et al. 2010) and Spathodea campanulata (Auld and
Nagatalevu-Seniloli, 2003), research has focussed on their ecology and control.
Invasive species surveys have been a component of wider biodiversity assessments
done in eastern Viti Levu (Morrison and Nawadra, 2009, Morrison et al., 2010,
Morrison, 2003). This is however, the first survey of invasive species in the Emalu
area.
8.3 Methodology
Rodent Survey
Traps were laid for rodents (rats and mice) on three consecutive nights during the
July 2012 survey in the Nasa River catchment. Traps were baited with roasted
coconuts and positioned in protected spots under hanging boulders, large tree bases
and below fallen logs. The traps were laid in pairs along a transect, according to the
established methodology of Cunningham and Moors (2006). The location of the three
trapping transects is shown in Map 11.
A total of 88 traps were set over the 3-day period, each for one night.The nose-to-tail
length and the weight of captured animals were measured using vernier calipers and
a 1kg spring balance. The species and sex of each captured animal was recorded,
along with an estimate of its age (based on body size).
Other Mammals
Opportunistic surveys were conducted to identify the presence of other invasive
mammal species such mongooses, feral cats, cows, dogs, horses, cows and goats. This
included simple visual surveys for individuals, or for traces such as footprints, scat,
and feeding evidence. Information was also obtained from other teams conducting
surveys in other parts of the forest study site. One of the guides used dogs to hunt
feral pigs, and these captures were also recorded.
Invasive Plants
A checklist of all invasive plants sighted was compiled during the survey with notes
taken as to their relative abundance and habitat preferences.
8.4 Results
A full checklist of all invasive and potentially invasive animals documented during
the survey is provided in Appendix 20.
82
Rodent Trapping
A summary of the trapping results is provided in Appendix 21. The trapping
transects only successfully captured one rat; a juvenile male black rat (Rattus rattus)
that weighed 135g. This rat was captured on the first trap night in Transect 1.
Another individual of the same species (Rattus rattus) was caught opportunistically
by one of the guides without a trap during the survey of the Waikarakarawa River
catchment (Fig. 62). The other two species of rats, Rattus exulans, Rattus norvegicus
and the mouse Mus musculus were not caught or observed during this trip, but it is
highly likely that they are present in the area.
Other Animals
Pigs
Six pigs were caught with the use of hunting dogs, including one pregnant female.
Descriptions of the pigs caught are given in Appendix 22. Numerous wild pig
wallows were observed in the forest including resting areas such as large tree
hollows. Plantations near the village of Navitilevu showed some evidence of pig
damage, including the uprooting of root crops such as cassava, taro and giant taro.
Cats
A juvenile male feral cat (Felis cattus) was caught at the Tovatova base camp. The cat
managed to escape but was seen around the camp several times looking for food. Cat
scat was also found along one of the tracks. No cats or evidence of cats were found
around the Waikarakarawa Creek base camp.
Horses
Due to the remoteness of the area and villagers depend greatly on their horses (Equus
caballus) for transportation to their plantations or into the forest. Horses were used
for transportation of equipment and supplies to the campsites in the Mavuvu and
Waikarakarawa Creek catchments during this study (Fig. 63). There was no evidence
of the presence of feral horses in the Emalu area.
Mongooses
Although no mongooses were observed within Emalu forest, according to the guides
they are present in and around their villages. Since no individuals were sighted it is
not known if both species of mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus, Herpestes fuscus) are
present in the area, or just one.
83
Cane toads
Cane toads (Bufo marinus) were present in the area, and several were caught and
photographed (Fig. 64). They tended to be larger in size than those in urban areas.
Invasive Plants
A total of 26 invasive plant species were observed to be present within the area.
Seven of these are currently listed in the top 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien
Species (Lowe et al., 2000). The complete list of all invasive and potentially invasive
plant species found in the Emalu forest is in Appendix 23.
The majority of species and the highest abundances were recorded in proximity to
human habitation and to roads and agricultural land, with a much reduced number
penetrating into the forest. Stream flats and embankments often had multiple
invasive species in close proximity to each other (Fig. 65).
African tulip (Spathodea campanulata)
Spathodea campanulata, although one of the most problematic invasive plant species in
Fiji, was recorded as only two individual trees within the forested area of the Nasa
catchment. One other tree was found near the basecamp in the Waikarakarawa
catchment. In and around villages and roadsides however this species was more
common.
False kava (Piper aduncum)
Large monotypic stands of Piper aduncum were observed outside the Emalu
boundary especially around Navitilevu Village, but within the Emalu site it is
generally restricted to creek banks and disturbed open areas.
Mikania micrantha and Clidemia hirta
Although generally occurring at low densities within the forest, these two species are
the most pervasive. Both were observed in higher altitudes, even in closed forest,
above 700m and Clidemia hirta was also recorded in the cloud forest of Mt Vonolevu.
Although both species are capable of growing in the low light conditions beneath
canopy, they are found in much higher density in open and disturbed areas
especially around tracks and stream banks.
Ornamentals
Several ornamentals plants introduced deliberately, probably as aboriginal
introductions, were found in the area. These included species such as Brugmansia
suaveolens, Musa x paradisiaca, Saccharum edule, Citrus grandis, Bambusa vulgaris,
Artocarpus altilis, Citrus limon, Derris malaccensis and Bischofia javanica. Large terraces
84
were observed within the Nasa and Waikarakarawa river catchments indicating that
at one time the area was intensively farmed.
8.5 Discussion
In general the occurrence and abundance of invasive species in the Emalu forest was
associated with proximity to human habitation and to disturbed areas such as tracks
and past or present campsites, fallow land, old village sites, burnt out forest and
cultivated areas.
A total of 26 invasive plants species were recorded during the trip including some
ornamental plant species that have the potential to become invasive. The majority of
the invasive plant species were found along stream banks, abandoned plantations
and old village sites. Continuous clearing of forest for plantation will certainly
facilitate the incursion of invasive plants into the forest. Disturbance and both human
and animal traffic along tracks will also contribute to the spread of invasive plants
into the interior of the forest.
Compared to invasive plants, invasive animals tend to have a more negative effect on
the native fauna. Even though there is a high possibility that all rat species are
present in the Nasa catchment of Emalu forest, the low trapping rate indicated either
a low density of rodents or the need to improve trapping methods. It is possible that
a grid system (Weihong et al., 1999) would have had a higher trapping success than
the transect system. Trapping data suggest the rat abundances are not very
significant but the presence of the black rat (Rattus rattus) is worrisome as they are a
very agile and frequent climber and therefore can easily access nesting birds.
The presence of feral cats could have also impacted the number of rats caught. Some
farms are located at a significant distance from villages and farmers prefer to build
temporary shelter where they camp and tend to their farms during the week and
return to the village during the weekend. Domestic animals such as cats and dogs
can aggregate around such makeshift camps and in this way become feral. Feral cats
in particular are a major threat to native birdlife.
Other invasive mammals observed during the trip included one juvenile feral cat and
six wild pigs caught by guide Aporosa Maya. Wild pig wallows are common
throughout the Emalu forest and according to the guides the wild pigs are a
significant cause of crop damage. Pigs can also cause damage to native biodiversity,
in particular through destroying seedlings, and contributing to soil erosion.
Although mongooses were not directly observed within the Emalu Forest according
to guides they can be seen around the villages, and it is likely there is incursion into
the forest where, like cats they pose a significant threat to native birdlife.
85
8.6 Recommendations
In terms of the potential for further study of invasive species, the following have
been identified as areas for further action:
1. Long-term monitoring of Spathodea campanulata. Emalu is an ideal site for
long-term monitoring as this species is considered highly invasive, but
currently has very low abundance in the area. Assessing its spread in relation
to disturbances or other ecological factors over time would elucidate further
information as to its invasiveness potential in Fiji.
2. A dedicated mongoose-trapping study over a longer time period is needed to
definitively establish if one or both of the two mongoose species in Fiji are
present in the Emalus area.
Some general control measures which would help lessen the damage done by
invasive species, and on which there needs to be awareness-raising in the villages
are:
3. Control of feral pig populations through de-sexing of alpha male pigs, and a
bounty system for pig hunters.
4. Limitation of the establishment of new farms to reduce encroachment on
grassland and secondary forest.
86
CHAPTER 9:
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Elia Nakoro and Sakiusa Kataiwai
9.1 Summary
The land belonging to the mataqali Emalu is rich in historical and cultural material
remains that have not been documented until this survey. The historical remains are
scattered all throughout the mataqali land, a widespread distribution of elaborate
hilltop and lowland settlement and fortifications some of which are associated with
sophisticated irrigation systems for terrace agriculture.
The general physical setup of settlements depicts various forms of insecurity in the
past, a time of great rivalry and competition. Supporting evidence for this can be
found in some of the structures of the hill fortifications that were encountered.
Constructing on high elevation is a survival strategy whereby communities used
their natural environment and rugged terrain to provide security.
Further evidence to support the notion that the area was densely populated was
given by the series of large intricate irrigation systems discovered during this survey.
The discovery of these elaborate channels suggests larger populations to implement
and maintain this agricultural system. The study of the cultural footprints within the
Emalu study area is vital in understanding why the people of Emalu chose to live in
such remoteness and rugged terrain, as well as their socio-cultural relations and their
responses to altering natural and climatic conditions.
Generally, the archaeological finds during this survey have considerable cultural
value to the local community as well as at the national level. The significance of these
sites can be determined and derived by deconstructing the value of the individual
sites into the following components; aesthetic, symbolic, social, historic, authenticity
and spiritual values.
9.2 Introduction
A collaborative archaeological survey was undertaken to outline the cultural
connection the land has to the people of the mataqali Emalu and surrounding
communities with an emphasis on identifying and describing cultural sites of
significance for which there is tangible evidence.
The mataqali Emalu, from the village of Draubuta, possesses a rich historical
background with ancestral ties and links connected to the Emalu forest in which their
generational history and cultural livelihood have been strongly maintained. The
Emalu forest plays a primary role in the cultural identity and history of the mataqali,
as their forefathers inhabited the area utilizing its resources and settling extensively
87
throughout the land as highlighted in this extract by A. Brewster, the Commissioner
of Colo North and East provinces in the late 1800s:
At the time when the ancestral gods were sent forth, Qicatabua went to Qamo, which is near
to Serua. Having arrived there, he disliked being on the sea coast, and made up his mind to
proceed into the hills in the interior, and so departing thence he went upwards to Vautabu
and came to the Wailevu, which he followed down to Navua and then he arrived at Busa
Levu. (Note: The great plateau of moorland and swamp in which rises the Wainisavulevu or
River of the great falls, a feeder of the Wainimala head of the Rewa. North of the Busa Levu is
the valley of the Sigatoka River and south west of the Navua River. This plateau is very
nearly in the centre of Viti Levu. A.B.B.) He followed the plateau up until he came to a hill,
which he called Emalu and thought that he would build his village there. He did build houses
and made clearings for gardens but he took a dislike to it, and arising he went on his way.
He followed the Mavuvu River (a tributary of the Navua) until he came to Veinuqa,
afterwards arriving at a place called Nasaqaruku. Some of his men who were with him said
they would like to remain there and Qicatabua gave them permission to do so, and they built
some houses there at Nasaqaruku. Now the name of the clan who remained at that place is
Nataritale. Then he went upstream to Toluga, and then some more of his followers said they
would stop there. Then he went on to another place called Nasakikisaqora. There stayed his
priest, Siliece. Then he went on to Sirowala, and there stopped another of his followers whose
name was Vadra. Then he went along the ridge at Naonou and descending followed another
ridge, Naraiyawa, then he got down to the river (the Sigatoka River) and got to a place called
Nakavu, and there stayed another of his young men by the name Quna. Then he came to
another stream, the Wainimosi, which he followed up to a marsh called Nabudoi. Then he
ascended a ridge and he said he would rest there, and called the place Emalu…
(Brewster, 1921)
9.3 Methodology
With the assistance of village guides through collaboration of oral history and
correspondence, areas of interest were identified and located in the study area.
Location data of each site was captured utilising a GPS unit (Garmin GPSmap
76CSx). Site notation was carried out and photographic documentation of sites was
made with a camera (Practica Luxmedia 14-Z4).
9.4 Results
During the field survey, a total of 77 sites were documented. Their locations are
shown in Map 12 and Map 13 and a brief description of each site is given in
Appendix 24. Photographs of some of the sites are shown in Fig. 68 - Fig. 97.
9.4.1
Sites of interest
Seven of the most interesting sites are described in detail below.
88
M28-0008
Extending along a flatland situated in lowland forest, the site displayed identified
features approximately within a 20m length zone from the first identified feature to
the furthest. Altogether, three evident house mound features were identified: the first
of which exuded significance in structure as the mound was more elevated than
usual, at a height of about 3m, containing a stone alignment that was demonstrated
along a portion of the mound surface. According to locals, this significant mound
may be the remains of a temple mound or burekalou indicated by the elevation in the
structure. The remaining identified features were two house mounds which were
sufficiently preserved, displaying a vague structure that demonstrated an adequate
appearance of its original formation.
M28-0016
This is a significant site of sentimental value to the mataqali Emalu as it represents an
aspect linked directly to the ancestral relations, background, oral accounts and values
that define and verify the mataqali and its cultural affiliations. The site is demarcated
by a pool, in which flows the Nasa Creek. According to the local oral narrative, the
pool is the final resting place for the endemic cicada, locally known as nanai
(Raiateana knowlesi). In the final stages of their life cycle, the cicadas flock to this pool
to perish, an event that occurs every eight years. The nanai is the traditional
manumanu or animal totem of the mataqali Emalu and through this site
identification, a considerable part of the historical link the mataqali Emalu has with
the land or vanua of Emalu, was established.
M28-0055
The site is quite extensive, covering a large area along the ridgeline with a total of
nine house mounds identified among two platforms that are conjoined, forming a
terrace-like construction over an extensive distance, as the landscape descends
towards the west. The first identified platform is situated at the initial area of
inspection on the east side of the site area. This platform reached a total length of
50m from either end with an identified width of 30m accommodating much of the
identified cultural features belonging to this site.
The first identified mound is rectangular in structure, 8.5 x 6.5m and is highly raised
compared to associated mounds-at least a meter above the ground. Due to its
elevated structure, this mound feature may represent a rank or status associated in
cultural communities. The second identified mound has a diameter of 8m and is
raised at 60cm from the ground displaying a well-preserved structure of its original
form. The third mound is circular and has a diameter of 8m with height raised at
60cm. The fourth mound is the largest mound feature identified in the area and is
centrally located. The mound is rectangular structured, having a length of 9m with a
width of 7.5m. The fifth house mound is identified as circular with a diameter of 7m
89
and a height of 150cm, well preserved. The sixth identified house mound is situated
on the western edge as the landscape descends to the second identified platform. The
mound is circular structured with a diameter of 7.5m and raised at 50cm, however,
closer inspection revealed that this mound has undergone disturbance through
erosion processes. At the edge of the northern wall of the platform, the team
identified the seventh house mound that was conjoined to the platform unlike the
associated mounds which were situated upon the platform. This mound is circular
structured and extends outwards from the platform. The platform is elevated 40cm
higher than the mound feature, creating a terrace-like structure. The mound has a
diameter of 7m and is raised 60cm from ground level.
As inspection continued towards the west, the team descended onto a second
platform that accommodated two house mounds. The initial identified mound on
this platform is the eighth house mound. This mound is circular structured with a
diameter of 7m and raised at 50cm. Along with this mound is the ninth identified
feature of another circular mound with a diameter of 6.5m and raised at 60cm. Both
mounds are situated on this second platform on the west section of the site area. This
platform extends 12 x 9.5m and is thickly vegetated with little undergrowth.
M28-0059 – Nanaga
This site has been designated for site monitoring due to cultural material remains in
the form of stone alignment which are quite intact. The site is bordered by the
Mavuvu Creek which borders the east and south of the unique study area. The site is
elevated from the banks of the Mavuvu Creek and is quite extensive covering an area
of about 70m in a north to south orientation and a width of 65m along an east to west
orientation however, areas beyond may be included but could not be surveyed as
dense vegetation and thickets limited access to these areas.
The site consisted of well-preserved cultural features that may define traditions that
were once practiced in the past. Upon inspection, the team identified rock walls or
baivatu, which were constructed elaborately around the site area. These rock walls
were measured at 1.2m wide and constructed in a circular manner with a portion of
the rock wall redirected from its key route to form another parallel formation along
the east side of the rock wall system. This parallel formation of the outer rock wall
extended to about 15m in a north-east orientation, ending at the eastern edge of the
elevated platform which the site is situated upon. The rock wall system encircles
until it ends as a three-quarter circle formation as a portion of the remainder has
undergone disturbance. A protruding rock wall formation projects southwards from
the main system extending to about 10m. At the centre of the surrounding rock wall
is a hollow area with the surface dipping gradually. The vegetation of the area is
predominately covered with bamboo and some moli kana (Citrus grandis), yasiyasi
(Syzygium fijiense), makita (Parinari glaberrima), sawira (Dysoxylum richii) and sago
palm shoots, locally known as soga.
90
Several researchers have conducted thorough studies on the ceremonial use of the
remarkable stone enclosure known as nanaga sites. The extent of these sites is
confined to a small area- less than a third of Viti Levu. These are the provinces of
Serua and Navosa with two sites in the upper Wainimala River, Narokorokoyawa
area, Naitasiri and appear to have been used up until 1876 during the end of the Colo
(highland) rebellion and the acceptance of Christianity caused them to fall into disuse
(Palmer, 1971). According to Palmer (1971), the nanaga sites are an archaeological
manifestation pertaining to certain Fijian ceremonials marking their New Year about
the end of October or the beginning of November. Palmer’s research sufficiently
connects the use of the nanaga sites with initiation, circumcision, pig worship and
perhaps preparations for warfare.
Considered a cult or a secret religious society bound together by the common link of
initiation resembling certain Australian and Melanesian rites, the nanaga was the
“bed” of the ancestors, that is where their descendants might hold communion with
them; the baki were the rites celebrated in the nanaga, from the initiation of youths or
presenting the first fruits, recovering the sick, or winning charms against wounds in
battle (Thomson, 1908).
M28-0065
This is the most extensive old village site that was recorded within the mataqali
Emalu boundary. The site is known as Nasaqaruku and was documented by
Brewster (1921) in his records of the migration of the mataqali Emalu.
The site begins on a stretch of flat land and includes a nearby ridge. Nasaqaruku
contains 30 identified house mounds and more would have been uncovered if the
lush vegetation cover was cleared. The level of erosion in the area is high and could
also contribute to the loss of several house mound features at the foot of the ridge.
Most of the house mounds are aligned with stones and have been displaced over
time by surface runoff. Similarly, wild pig trails and human harvesting of wild yams
are widely evident. On the south-western side of the settlement and along the ridge
stands a house mound 3m high and has a diameter of 6m. The structure is typical of
a traditional temple or burekalou and constructed on a platform so that it is higher
above all the other house mounds. The structure is raised earthen material and has
withstood the devastating forces of natural elements. Apart from the evidence of
house mounds, other cultural remains include plain pottery sherds found scattered
in some parts of the area, and the culturally introduced plant indicators such as moli
kana, vasili, saqiwa and kavika.
M28-0066
This is a fortified settlement strategically constructed on a hill east-southeast of the
rock shelter site M28-00071. The hill fortification is immense and contains several
exceptional features that are well preserved. Outlined in a north-northwest to south91
southeast direction, the site runs along a ridge. Habitational platforms are carved
onto the surface and accommodated four house mounds. Each house mound is
embedded with stone lining some of which have been displaced due to natural
causes.
As the ridge line drops on the south-southeast end of the site, rocks are piled in a
heap up to 2.5m high. The stones are piled as if to await adversaries and probably
were never used, as the stones are stacked in a dome like structure. Further down the
slope two defensive pits are dug deep into the floor of the ground separated by a 1m
wide causeway. The pits are about 2.5m long and about 1.5m wide and dug
following the direction of the ridge line. As the relief begins to ascend to the next
ridge level another set of stones piled up to form a defensive wall that is about 2.5m
high, half a meter wide and about 4m long. At the end of the stone wall are two huge
rock outcrops to strengthen the western corner of the wall aided with a steep slope,
leaving no room for safe passage through. The vegetation of the area is that of
scattered secondary vegetation cover of huge trees like dakua makadre (Agathis
macrophylla), baka (Ficus obliqua), and marasa (Elattostachys falcata). The stone features
are cloaked with thickets of vines that have held the stones in place over the years.
M28-0068
Similar to Nasaqaruku old village site (M28-0065), the footprint of this cultural relic
is extensive and stretches approximately 530m along a ridgeline southwest of the site
described above. A total of 26 house remains were surveyed with sizes that vary all
throughout the site. The average size of the house mounds is 6.8m to 8.6m.
In different parts of the site there are massive platforms upon which several house
mounds are constructed. The eastern corner contains an oval platform that is 5m
high, 30m long, 16m wide and holds three house mounds. The foot of the platform is
enclosed with a 15m flat area where four house mounds can be found on the east of
the platform. This is the only portion of the site where the mounds and the platform
are symmetrical. The mid-section of the site contains three platforms each more than
30m long and highly raised well above 3m. The first platform is separated from the
next by a ditch that is 2.5m deep and 4m wide. Several obvious house mounds of
raised earthen materials are constructed on these platforms. The house mounds are
well intact with slow erosion seen on the edges. The thick canopy cover and floor
vegetation preserved the cultural remains from heavy downpour.
Towards the west of the settlement, the ridge runs southwest and the cultural
remains continues for another 121m consisting of a platform that is almost 30m long,
9m wide and raised 5m from the ground surface. The platform holds four house
mounds while several more were constructed on the lower elevation. A 5m wide
ditch seals off the end of the settlement as the ridge begins to slope downward to the
lower reaches of the hill.
92
9.4.2
Monitoring sites
The increasingly intensive use and modification of the landscape resulting from
modern demands for efficient infrastructure and land use (agricultural production,
mining, energy sources, logging, etc.) exerts growing pressure on cultural heritage in
the landscape. A summary of the threats and disturbances affecting the sites is
provided in Table 2.
Table 2. Site disturbance factors and threats within Emalu.
Type of
Disturbance/threat
disturbance/threat description
Nature
These threats occur
naturally and cause
irreversible damage tropical cyclones,
earthquakes, heavy rain
and erosion processes
contribute to changing
and shaping the natural
and cultural landscape.
Human
Animal
Sites affected
All the sites documented the effects of
natural events on the remains of cultural
heritage site features. The dominant natural
element affecting the structures is heavy rain
which leads to the erosion of the edges of the
house mounds, infilling of fortification
ditches and causeways. Heavy rain also
results in fluvial formation of rills and gullies
thus displacing stone alignment and washing
away the material remains.
These are threats that
About 95% of the sites identified contained
are caused or related to human trails either travelling between
human inhabitance &
provinces but mostly from hunting and
activities in and around gathering.
the area of study.
These are threats that
Pig hooves and snout trails covered about 60are caused or related to 70% of the sites surveyed. Dog trails were
animals-grazing,
also encountered but pose little threat to the
breeding and
sites.
inhabitation activities
specifically wild pigs
The 77 culturally significant sites encountered and documented during this survey
are widely distributed across the study area. Since the Emalu land boundary is vast
and accessibility is hindered by rugged terrain, the Archaeology team recommends
that two sites, M28-0059 and M28-0046, be used for monitoring purposes. A
summary of the framework within which this monitoring could occur is presented in
Table 3.
Site M28-0059 can be easily accessed from either Navitilevu Village or Draubuta
Village, both in the province of Navosa and located on the valley flats along Mavuvu
Creek. However, site M28-0046 is located upland and results from the assessment
will be used for comparison of threats that affect cultural heritage sites. These sites
are most suitable for such a study given the outstanding cultural remains found here.
The degradation of the site will be examined every two years by using traditional
methods of site visitation and capturing still images of the area during the period of
93
the REDD+ program. Data from other teams such as aerial/satellite images of the
forest cover can also be a tool used for the process depending on data availability.
Table 3. Indicators and monitoring plan for cultural sites in Emalu.
Theme
Indicators
Monitoring Tool
Assessing the current state of the
sites and monitor the changes
through time
Threats to the sites Identifying the threats that affect
the state of the sites
Choosing two sites for the
Access to the sites
assessment of the above variables
with access to the site as
comparison
Cultural valuation The two sites differ in cultural
value
of the sites
Reporting
State of the sites
Cultural
heritage sites
Assessment
report every
two years
Remote sensing even though costly, could also be a useful tool to map out the
changes in the monitoring site by using laser-based sensors and radar in particular
Synthetic Aperture Radar to see the ground or surface changes or even identify
subsurface remains.
9.5 Conclusion
The land belonging to the mataqali Emalu is rich in historical cultural material
remains that have never been documented. The historical remains are scattered all
throughout the mataqali land, a widespread distribution of elaborate hilltop and
lowland settlement and fortifications some of which are associated with the
sophisticated irrigation systems for terrace agriculture.
The cultural footprints indicate the vast number of activities at one stage in history
occurring in the remote highlands of Navosa. It also demonstrates the dense
populations of the area where the sites occur close to each other and are mostly
constructed along the ridgeline. The general physical setup of settlements depicts
various forms of insecurity at that time-a time of great rivalry and competition.
Supporting evidence can be found in some of the structures of the hill fortifications
that were encountered. Constructing on high elevation is a survival strategy whereby
communities used their natural environment and rugged terrain to provide security.
Further evidence to support the notion that the area was densely populated was
given by the series of large intricate irrigation systems discovered during this survey.
The discovery of these elaborate channels suggests larger populations to implement
and maintain this agricultural system. However the drive and intentions of the local
people related to the social structure and hierarchy in Fijian communities still remain
undefined.
94
The study of the cultural footprints within the Emalu study area is vital in
understanding the patterns and motivational factors related to inland migration: why
the people of Emalu chose to live in such remoteness and rugged terrain, sociocultural relations and their responses to altering natural and climatic conditions.
Generally, the archaeological finds during this survey have considerable cultural
value to the local community and at national level. The significance of these sites can
be determined and derived by deconstructing the value of the individual sites into
the following components; aesthetic, symbolic, social, historic, authenticity and
spiritual values. All the sites identified include one of these values while some may
incorporate all, however an absent values does not lessen the significance of a site as
it holds the ancestral history of the hill tribes of Fiji.
9.6 Conservation recommendations
Fiji has an ancient, complex and unique cultural heritage preserved in its
archaeological sites. Unfortunately much of this record has been carelessly destroyed
through human activity. The large scale of current and planned land development
activity in Fiji poses a great threat to remaining sites, thus preservation activities are
crucial to saving Fiji’s archaeological heritage. Fiji’s archaeological environment
represents a valuable and irreplaceable record of the nation’s cultural and social
development. For this reason alone it is important that these sites be maintained well.
In addition to its historical, cultural and archaeological merits the historic heritage
also forms a readily available resource of considerable amenity, education, scientific,
recreational and tourism value to the people of Fiji and visitors alike.
The archaeological assessment revealed valuable information pertaining to the
mataqali Emalu and neighbouring communities historically linked to the land.
Various findings of cultural assets were able to ascertain that these ancestral sites
conveyed immeasurable knowledge and understanding of the history pertaining to
traditional and cultural developments, linked closely to the identity of its people. It
depicts the movement and settlement patterns of their ancestors and the forms of
survival which defined their everyday lives.
Such history must be preserved whether tangible or intangible, however, various
threats and disturbances of these cultural sites have, to an extent, altered important
aspects of material history of the vanua of Emalu. All the sites identified are
protected in Fiji under the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and
Palaeontological Interest Act (1940).
Recommendations are:
•
that proper documentation of the assessment and oral history be undertaken
to avoid the loss of traditional knowledge and history of the study area,
95
•
the Fiji Museum Archaeology department is included in any future surveys to
allow for completion of assessments of areas that have been overlooked,
namely, the area on the southwest of the land boundary,
•
a presentation of significant findings be done to raise awareness in the region,
an activity for which the Fiji Museum is available.
96
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Species checklist of the non-vascular flora and lichens
Family
Hornworts
Anthocerotaceae
Anthocerotaceae
Anthocerotaceae
Anthocerotaceae
Dendrocerotaceae
Dendrocerotaceae
Dendrocerotaceae
Dendrocerotaceae
Notothyladaceae
Liverworts
Anastrophyllaceae
Anastrophyllaceae
Aneuraceae
Aneuraceae
Aneuraceae
Aneuraceae
Dumortieraceae
Geocalycaceae
Geocalycaceae
Geocalycaceae
Geocalycaceae
Geocalycaceae
Hymenophytaceae
Jamesoniellaceae
Jamesoniellaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jubulaceae
Jungermanniaceae
Jungermanniaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Species
Folioceros amboinensis (Schiffn.) Piippo
Folioceros fuciformis (Mont.) D.C.Bharadwaj
Folioceros gladulosus (Lehm. et Lindenb.) D.C.Bharadwaj
Folioceros pinnilobus (Steph.) D.C.Bharadwaj
Dendroceros cavernosus J.Haseg.
Dendroceros granulatus Mitt.
Dendroceros javanicus (Nees) Nees
Megaceros flagellaris (Mitt.) Steph.
Phaeoceros carolinianus (Michx.) Prosk.
Plicanthus birmensis (Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Plicanthus hirtellus (F.Weber) R.M.Schust.
Aneura maxima (Schiffn.) Steph.
Lobatiriccardia coronopus (De Not. Ex Steph.) Furuki
Riccardia alba (Colenso) E.A.Br.
Riccardia graeffei (Steph.) Hewson
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Nees
Heteroscyphus argutus (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Schiffn
Heteroscyphus aselliformis (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Schiffn
Heteroscyphus coalitus (Hook.) Schiffn.
Heteroscyphus succulentus (Gottsche) Schiffn.
Notoscyphus lutescens (Lehm. et Lindenb.) Mitt.
Hymentophyton flabellatum (Labill.) Dumort. ex. Trevis.
Cuspidatula contracta (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Steph.
Denotarisia linguifolia (De Not.) Grolle
Frullania apiculata (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Nees
Frullania arecae (Spreng.) Gottsche var. arecae
Frullania cf. capillaris
Frullania chevalieri (R.M.Schust.) R.M.Schust.
Frullania cordistipula (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Dumort.
Frullania ericoides (Nees) Mont.
Frullania f. intermedia
Frullania f. intesmed
Frullania gaudichaudii (Nees et Mont.) Nees et Mont.
Frullania gracilis (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Gottsche, Lindenb. et Nees
Frullania intermedia (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Gottsche, Lindenb. et Nees Dumort.
Frullania meyeniana Lindenb.
Frullania neurota Taylor
Frullania nodulosa (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Nees
Frullania ramuligera (Nees) Mont.
Frullania ternatensis Gottsche
Conoscyphus trapezioides (Sande Lac.) Schiffn.
Jamesoniella flexicaulis (Nees) Schiffn.
Acrolejeunea pycnoclada (Taylor) Schiffn.
Archilejeunea planiuscula (Mitt.) Steph.
Caudalejeunea reniloba (Gottsche) Steph.
97
Family
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Species
Ceratolejeunea belangeriana (Gottsche) Steph.
Ceratolejeunea vitiensis Steph.
Cheilolejeunea decursiva Steph.
Cheilolejeunea falsinervis (Sande Lac.) R.M.Schust. et Kachroo
Cheilolejeunea intertexta (Lindenb.) Steph.
Cheilolejeunea lindenbergii (Gottsche) Mizut.
Cheilolejeunea trapezia (Nees, Lindenb. Et. Gottsche) R.M.Schutst et Kachroo
Cheilolejeunea trifaria (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Mizut.
Cololejeunea aequabilis (Sande Lac.) Schiffn.
Cololejeunea amphibola B. Thiers
Cololejeunea augustiflora (Steph.) Mizut.
Cololejeunea cardiocarpa (Mont.) A.Evans
Cololejeunea cocoscola (Angstr.) Steph.
Cololejeunea diaphana A.Evans
Cololejeunea equialbi Tixier
Cololejeunea falcata (Horik.) Benedix
Cololejeunea floccosa (Lehm.et Lindenb.) Schiffn.
Cololejeunea huerlimannii (Austin) Steph.
Cololejeunea inflectens Tixier
Cololejeunea kulenensis (Mitt.) Benedix
Cololejeunea longifolia (Mitt.) Benedix ex Mizut.
Cololejeunea metzgeriopsis (K.I.Goebel) Gradst., R.Wilson, Ilk.-Borg. et Heinrichs
Cololejeunea minutissima (Sm.) Schiffn.
Cololejeunea obliqua (Nees et Mont.) Schiffn.
Cololejeunea peraffinis (Schiffn.) Schiffn.
Cololejeunea pseudoserrata Tixier
Cololejeunea raduliloba Steph.
Cololejeunea schmidtii Steph.
Cololejeunea sintenisii (Steph.) Pocs
Cololejeunea societatis Tixier
Cololejeunea stylosa (Steph.) Steph.ex Mizut.
Cololejeunea wightii Steph.
Colura acroloba (Mont. ex Steph.) Ast
Colura ari (Steph.) Steph.
Colura brevistyla Herzog
Colura conica (Sande Lac.) K.I.Goebel
Colura corynophora (Nees, Lindeb. Et.Gottsche) Trevis.
Colura crispiloba Ast
Colura cristata Ast
Colura leratii Ast
Colura pluridentata Ast
Colura queenslandica B.M.Thiers
Colura superba (Mont.) Steph.
Colura tenuicornis (A.Evans) Steph.
Colura vitiensis Pocs et J.Eggers
Dendrolejeunea fruticosa (Lindenb. Et Gottsche) Lacout.
Diplasiolejeunea cavifolia Steph.
Drepanolejeunea angustifolia (Mitt.) Grolle
Drepanolejeunea dactylophora (Nees, Lindend. et Gottsche) Schiffn.
Drepanolejeunea ternatensis (Gottsche) Spruce ex Schiffn.
Drepanolejeunea vesiculosa (Mitt.) Steph.
Harpalejeunea filicuspis (Steph.) Mizut.
Lejeunea alata Gottsche
98
Family
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lejeuneaceae
Lepicoleaceae
Lepicoleaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Marchantiaceae
Metzgeriaceae
Metzgeriaceae
Metzgeriaceae
Pallaviciniaceae
Pallaviciniaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Species
Lejeunea anisophylla Mont.
Lejeunea capensis Gottsche
Lejeunea discreta Lindenb.
Lejeunea exilis (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Grolle
Lejeunea flava (Sw.) Nees
Lejeunea lumbricoides (Nees) Nees
Lejeunea sordida (Nees) Nees
Lejeunea umbilicata (Nees) Nees
Lepidolejeunea bidentula (Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Lepidolejeunea borneensis (Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Lepidolejeunea graeffei (J.B.Jack et Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Lepidolejeunea integristipula (J.B.Jack et Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Lepidolejeunea involuta (Gottsche) Grolle
Leptolejeunea elliptica (Lehm. Et Lindenb.) Schiffn.
Leptolejeunea epiphylla (Mitt.) Steph.
Lopholejeunea eulopha (Taylor) Schiffn.
Lopholejeunea hispidissima Steph.
Lopholejeunea nigricans (Lindenb.) Schiffn.
Lopholejeunea subfusca (Nees) Schiffn.
Lopholejeunea zollingeri (Steph.) Schiffn.
Mastigolejeunea auriculata (Wilson) Schiffn.
Mastigolejeunea calcarata (Mitt. ex Steph.) Verd.
Metalejeunea cucullata (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Grolle
Phaeolejeunea amicorum (Hurl.) Pocs
Ptychanthus striatus (Lehm. Et Lindenb.) Nees
Spruceanthus polymorphus (Sande Lac.) Verd.
Thysananthus retusus (Reinw., Blume et Nees) B.M.Thiers et Gradst.
Lepicolea rara (Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Mastigophora diclados (Brid. Ex F.Weber) Nees
Bazzania erosa (Reinw.Blume et Nees) Trevis.
Bazzania tridens(Reinw.Blume et Nees) Trevis.
Bazzania unicegera(Reinw.Blume et Nees) Trevis.
Bazzania vittata (Gottsche) Trevis
Kurzia gonyotricha (Sande Lac.) Grolle
Psiloclada clandestina Mitt.
Telaranea lindenbergii (Gottsche) J.J.Engel et G.L.Merr.
Telaranea pruinosa (Herzog) J.J.Engel et G.L.Merr.
Telaranea rosarioana H.A.Mill.
Zoopsidella caledonica (Steph.) R.M.Schust.
Marchantia vitiensis Steph.
Metzgeria ciliata Raddi
Metzgeria furcata (L.) Corda
Metzgeria leptoneura Spruce
Pallavicinia lyellii (Hook.) Carruth.
Symphyogynopsis gottscheana (Mont. Et Nees) Grolle
Chiastocaulon dendroides (Nees) Carl
Chiloscyphus muricatus (Lehm.) J.J.Engel et R.M.Schust.
Plagiochila abietina (Nees) Nees et Mont.
Plagiochila arbuscula (Brid. ex Lehm. et Lindenb.) Lindenb.
Plagiochila bantamensis (Reinw., Blume et Nees) Mont.
Plagiochila hampenana Gottsche
Plagiochila javanica (Sw.) Nees et Mont.
Plagiochila oppositum Dozy ex Sande Lac
99
Family
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochilaceae
Pleuroziaceae
Pleuroziaceae
Porellaceae
Pseudolepicoleaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Radulaceae
Schistochilaceae
Schistochilaceae
Schistochilaceae
Schistochilaceae
Schistochilaceae
Schistochilaceae
Solenostomataceae
Solenostomataceae
Solenostomataceae
Solenostomataceae
Treubiaceae
Trichocoleaceae
Mosses
?
Calymperaceae
Calymperaceae
Calymperaceae
Calymperaceae
Calymperaceae
Calymperaceae
Daltoniaceae
Dicranaceae
Dicranaceae
Dicranaceae
Dicranaceae
Dicranaceae
Entodontaceae
Fissidentaceae
Garovagliaceae
Garovagliaceae
Hookeriaceae
Hookeriaceae
Hookeriaceae
Hookeriaceae
Hookeriaceae
Species
Plagiochila sandei Sande
Plagiochila teysmannii Sande
Plagiochilion braunianum (Nees) S.Hatt.
Pleurozia conchifolia (Hook. Et Arn.) Austin
Pleurozia gigantea (F.Weber) Lindb.
Porella elegantula (Mont.) E.A.Hodgs.
Temnoma setigerum (Lindenb.) R.M.Schust.
Radula amentulosa Mitt.
Radula campanigera Mont.
Radula decurrens Mitt.
Radula formosa (C.F.W.Meissn. Ex Spreng.) Nees
Radula javanica Gottsche
Radula lingulata Gottsche
Radula protensa Lindenb.
Radula reflexa Nees et Mont.
Radula retroflexa Taylor
Radula scariosa Mitt.
Radula tjibodensis K.I.Goebel
Schistochila aligera (Nees et Blume) J.B.Jack et Steph.
Schistochila blumei (Nees) Trevis
Schistochila caledonica Steph.
Schistochila fijiensis H.Buch et Herzog
Schistochila repleta (Hook.f.et Taylor) Steph
Schistochila sciurea (Nees) Schiffn.
Solenostoma ariadne (Taylor ex Lehm.) R.M.Schust. ex Vana et D.G.Long
Solenostoma haskarlianum (Nees) R.M.Schust. ex Vana et D.G.Long
Solenostoma tetragonum (Lindenb.) R.M.Schust. ex Vana
Solenostoma truncatum (Nees) R.M.Schust. Ex Vana et D.G.Long
Treubia lacunosa (Colenso) Prosk.
Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrh.) Dumort.
Cyclodictyum blumeanum
Calymperes sp.
Mitthyridium luteum (Mitt.) H. Rob.
Mitthyridium obtusifolium (Lindb.) H. Rob.
Mitthyridium sp.
Syrrhopodon sp.
Syrrhopodon tristichus Nees ex Schwägr.
Bryobrothera crenulata (Broth. & Paris) Thér.
Campylopodium euphorocladum (Müll. Hal.) Besch.
Campylopus introflexus (Hedw.) Brid.
Campylopus umbellatus (Schwägr. & Gaudich. ex Arn.) Paris
Leucoloma sp.
Leucoloma tenuifolium Mitt.
Entodon solanderi (Ångström) A. Jaeger
Fissidens sp.
Euptychium setigerum (Sull.) Broth.
Euptychium vitiense Dixon
Cyathophorum sp.
Cyathophorum tahitense Besch.
Daltonia contorta Müll. Hal.
Distichophyllum cuspidatum (Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk.
Distichophyllum sp.
100
Family
Hookeriaceae
Hypnaceae
Hypnaceae
Hypnodendraceae
Hypnodendraceae
Hypopterygiaceae
Lembophyllaceae
Lembophyllaceae
Leucobryaceae
Leucobryaceae
Leucobryaceae
Leucobryaceae
Meteoriaceae
Meteoriaceae
Meteoriaceae
Meteoriaceae
Meteoriaceae
Meteoriaceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Neckeraceae
Orthorrhynchiaceae
Orthotrichaceae
Orthotrichaceae
Orthotrichaceae
Pallaviciniaceae
Pleuroziaceae
Pterobryaceae
Pterobryaceae
Pterobryaceae
Pterobryaceae
Pterobryaceae
Ptychomniaceae
Racopilaceae
Rhizogoniaceae
Rhizogoniaceae
Rhizogoniaceae
Sematophyllaceae
Sematophyllaceae
Spiridentaceae
Thuidiaceae
Lichen
Baeomycetaceae
Baeomycetaceae
Baeomycetaceae
Brigantiaceae
Chrysotrichaceae
Cladoniaceae
Coccocarpiaceae
Species
Distichophyllum vitianum (Sull.) Mitt.
Ectropothecium sp.
Hypnum sp.
Bescherellia cryphaeoides (Müll. Hal.) M. Fleisch.
Hypnodendron dendroides (Brid.) Touw
Hypopterygium vriesei Bosch & Sande Lac.
Camptochaete porotrichoides (Besch.) Broth.
Camptochaete subporotrichoides (Broth. & Geh.) Broth.
Leucobrym sanctum (Brid.) Hampe
Leucobryum aduncum Dozy & Molk.
Leucobryum candidum (Brid. ex P. Beauv.) Wilson
Leucobryum scalare Müll. Hal. ex M. Fleisch.
Aerobryopsis longistima (Dozy & Molk.) M.Fleisch.
Aerobryopsis vitiana (Sull.) M. Fleisch.
Aerobryopsis wallichii (Brid.) M. Fleisch.
Floribundaria aeruginosa (Mitt.) M. Fleisch.
Papillaria helictophylla (Mont.) Broth.
Papillaria leuconeura (Müll. Hal.) A. Jaeger
Himantocladium plumula (Nees) M. Fleisch.
Homaliodendron flabellatum (Sm.) M. Fleisch.
Neckeropsis lepineana (Mont.) M. Fleisch.
Nedceropsis sp.
Pinnatella ct. ambigua
Pinnatella kuehliana (Bosch & Sande Lac.) M. Fleisch.
Pinnatella sp.
Orthorrhynchium elegans (Hook. f. & Wilson) Reichardt
Macromitrium angulatum Mitt.
Macromitrium incurvifolium (Hook. & Grev.) Schwägr.
Macromitrium involutifolium (Hook. & Grev.) Schwägr.
Pallavicinia sp.
Pleurozia gigantea (F. Weber) Lindb.
Calyptothecium seminerve E.B. Bartram is an unresolved name
Garovaglia elegans (Dozy & Molk.) Hampe ex Bosch & Sande Lac.
Garovaglia powellii Mitt.
Symphysodon vitianus (Sull.) Broth.
Symphysodontella cylindracea (Mont.) M. Fleisch.
Ptychomnion aciculare (Brid.) Mitt.
Racopilum sp.
Pyrrhobryum sp.
Pyrrhobryum spiniforme (Hedw.) Mitt.
Rhizogonium graeffeanum (Müll. Hal.) A. Jaeger
Acroporium sp.
Meiothecium hamatum (Müll. Hal.) Broth.
Spiridens aristifolius Mitt.
Thuidium sp.
Baemyces heteromorphus Nyl.ex C.Bab.&Mitt.
Dibaeis absoluta Kalb & Gierl
Dibaeis sorediata Kalb & Gierl
Brigantiaea leucoxantha (Spreng.)R. Sant. & Hafellner
Chrysothrix xanthina (Vain.)Kalb
Cladonia macilenta Hoffm.
Coccocarpis glaucina Kremp.
101
Family
Species
Coccotremataceae
Coccotrema cucurbitula (Mont.) Mull.Arg.
Coenogoniaceae
Coenogonium congense Dodge
Gomphillaceae
Calenia depressa Mull.Arg.
Gomphillaceae
Gyalectidium filicinum Mull.Arg.
Gomphillaceae
Gyalectidium imperfectum Vezda
Gomphillaceae
Gyalideopsis intermedia Lucking
Graphidaceae
Fissurina dumastioides (Fink) Staiger
Graphidaceae
Graphis duplicata Vain
Graphidaceae
Leucodecton albidulum (Nyl.) Mangold
Graphidaceae
Leucodecton phaeosporum (Nyl.) Rivas
Graphidaceae
Thelotrema circumscriptum C.Knight
Graphidaceae
Thelotrema defossum (Mull.Arg.) Mangold
Graphidaceae
Thelotrema pachysporum Nyl.
Graphidaceae
Thelotrema porinaceum Mull.Arg.
Graphidaceae
Thelotrema porinoides (Mont. & Bosh)
? Hymenochaetales
Cyphellostereum pusiolum (Berk.&M.A.Curtis) D.A.Reid
Megalosporaceae
Megalospora sulphurata Meyen
Meruliaceae
Dictyonema irpicinum (Mont.) Nyl.
Pannariaceae
Pannaria tavaresii P.M.Jorg
Parmeliaceae
Hypotrachyna imbricatula (Zahlbr.) Hale
Parmeliaceae
Parmotrema abessinicum (Nyl.ex Kremp.) Hale
Parmeliaceae
Relicina abstrusa (Vain.) Hale
Peltigeraceae
Peltigera sumatrana Gyeln.
Physciaceae
Heterodermia incana (Stirt.) D.D.Awasthi
Piliocarpaceae
Badimia elegans (Vain.) Vezda
Pilocarpaceae
Byssoloma leucoblepharum (Nyl.)Vain.
Porinaceae
Porina brisbanensis Mull.Arg.
Pyrenulaceae
Pyrenula kurzii Ajay Singh & Upreti
Stereocaulaceae
Lepraria lobificans Nyl.
Strigulaceae
Strigula maculata (Cooke & Massee)
Thelotremateae
Melanotopelia rugosa (Kantvilas & Vezda) Mangold & Lumbsch
SUMMARY: 72 Families, 133 Genera
102
Appendix 2. Annotated checklist of the vascular flora of Emalu.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
103
Angiosperm – Dicotyledons
Alangiaceae
Alangium vitiense (A.Gray) Baill. ex Harms
Anacardiaceae
Buchanania attenuata A.C.Smith
Anacardiaceae
Buchanania vitiensis Engl.
Anacardiaceae
Dracontomelon vitiense Engl.
Anacardiaceae
Pleiogynium timoriense (DC.) Leenh.
Anacardiaceae
Rhus simarubifolia A.Gray
Anacardiaceae
Semecarpus vitiensis (A.Gray) Engl.
Annonaceae
Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f.& Thoms.
Annonaceae
Cyathocalyx cf. insularis
Annonaceae
Cyathocalyx insularis A.C.Sm.
Annonaceae
Cyathocalyx sp.
Annonaceae
Polyalthia laddiana A.C.Smith
Annonaceae
Xylopia sp.
Apiaceae
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Apocynaceae
Alstonia montana Turrill
Apocynaceae
Alstonia pacifica (Seem.) A.C.Smith
Apocynaceae
Alstonia vitiensis Seem.
Apocynaceae
Alyxia sp.
Apocynaceae
Cerbera manghas L.
Araliaceae
Plerandra insolita A.C.Sm.
Araliaceae
Plerandra pickeringii A.Gray
Araliaceae
Polyscias joskei Gibbs
Araliaceae
Polyscias multijuga (A.Gray) Harms
Araliaceae
Schefflera vitiensis (A.Gray) Seem.
Araucariaceae
Agathis macrophylla (Lindl.) Mast.
Asclepiadaceae
Hoya australis R.Br.
Asteraceae
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Asteraceae
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist
Asteraceae
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore
Asteraceae
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob.
Asteraceae
Elephantopus mollis H.B.K.
dalovoci, dokonisau
Kaukaro
maqo ni veikau
Tarawau
tarawau
Kaukaro
Makosoi
Mako
makosoi ni veikau
dulewa, makosoi ni veikau
dulewa
sorua
sorua lailai
sorua levu
vasa
sole
sole
sole
danidani
sole
dakua makadre
hoya
botebotekoro
ironweed
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., poss.end
Indg., nat., end.
Indg.pres.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg.pres.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., poss.nat.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., poss.cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Balanophoraceae
Barringtoniaceae
Burseraceae
Burseraceae
Burseraceae
Burseraceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Cassythaceae
Casuarinaceae
Casuarinaceae
Ceasalpiniaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.
Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Pseudelephantopus spicatus (B.Juss. ex Aubl.) C.F.Baker
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.
Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitchc.
Wollastonia biflora (L.) DC.
Balanophora fungosa J.R.&G.Forst.
Barringtonia sp.
Canarium harveyi Seem.
Canarium vanikoroense Leenh.
Canarium vitiense A.Gray
Haplolobus floribundus (K.Schum) Lam
Caesalpinia major (Medik.) Dandy & Exell
Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench
Cynometra falcata A.Gray
Cynometra insularis A.C.Sm.
Kingiodendron platycarpum B.L.Burtt
Maniltoa grandiflora (A.Gray) Scheffer
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Storckiella vitiensis Seem.
Cassytha filiformis L.
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& G.Forst.
Gymnostoma vitiense L.A.S.Johnson
Maniltoa floribunda A.C.Smith
Parinari insularum A.Gray
Calophyllum ambiphyllum A.C.Smith & S.Darwin
Calophyllum cerasiferum Vesque
Calophyllum inophyllum L.
Calophyllum leptocladum A.C.Sm. & S.P.Darwin
Calophyllum neo-ebudicum Guillaumin
Calophyllum vitiensis Turrill
Garcinia adinantha A.C.Sm. & S.P.Darwin
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
mile a minute
ironweed
vutu
kaunicina, kaunigai
kaunisiga
kaunicina B
kaunigai, kaunigai
soni
104
moivi
moivi
moivi
cibicibi, moivi
marasa
nokonoko
velau
cibicibi
Sea/sa
damanu dilodilo
damanu draulevu
damanu (lailai)
damanu draulailai
damanu kula
damanu
bulu
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg.pres.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Combretaceae
Connaraceae
Crassulaceae
Cucubitaceae
Cunoniaceae
Cunoniaceae
Degeneriaceae
Dichapetalaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Garcinia myrtifolia A.C.Smith
Garcinia pseudoguttifera Seem.
Garcinia sessilis (Forst.f.) Seem.
Garcinia vitiensis (A.Gray) Seem.
Terminalia catappa L.
Connarus pickeringii A.Gray
Kalanchöe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
Momordica charantia L.
Geissois ternata A.Gray
Weinmannia vitiensis Seem.
Degeneria vitiensis I.W.Bailey & A.C.Smith
Dichapetalum vitiense (Seem.) Engl.
Dioscorea bulbifera L.
Diospyros elliptica (J.R.&G.Forst) P.S.Green
Diospyros foliosa (Rich ex A.Gray) Bakh.
Diospyros major (G.Forst.) Bakh.
Diospyros sp.
Elaeocarpus chelonimorphus Gillespie
Elaeocarpus kambi Gibbs.
Acalypha insulana Müll.Arg.
Acalypha repanda Müll.Arg.
Acalypha rivularis Seem.
Acalypha sp.
Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.
Antidesma elassophyllum A.C.Sm.
Baccaurea pulvinata A.C.Sm.
Baccaurea sp.
Bischoffia javanica Blume
Croton microtiglium Burkill
Drypetes vitiensis Croizat
Endospermum macrophyllum (Muell.Arg.) Pax & Hoffm.
Euphorbia cyathophora Murray
Glochidion anfractuosum Gibbs
Glochidion concolor Müll.Arg.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
bulu
bulu m, laubu
bulu wai
tavola
vure
masiratu/vavaloa
kaile
105
kauloa
kauloa
kauloa
kabi
kabi
kalabuci
lauci
molau
midra
midra
koka
danidani
kauvula
makovatu
molau
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Gonystylaceae
Goodeniaceae
Hernandiaceae
Icacinaceae
Icacinaceae
Lamiaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Loganiaceae
Loganiaceae
Loganiaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Glochidion vitiense (Müll.Arg.) Gillespie
Homalanthus nutans (G.Forst.) Guill.
Macaranga graeffeana Pax & K.Hoffm.
Macaranga harveyana (Muell.Arg.) Muell.
Macaranga seemannii (Muell.Arg.) Muell.
Phyllanthus sp.
Crotalaria pallida Ait.
Derris trifoliata Lour.
Milletia elliptica (Roxb.) Steud.
Mucuna cf. platyphylla
Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC.
Flacourtia sp.?
Homalium pallidum A.C.Smith
Homalium vitiense Benth.
Gonystylus punctatus A.C.Sm.
Scaevola floribunda A.Gray
Hernandia olivacea Gillespie
Citronella vitiensis R.Howard
Medusanthera vitiensis Seem.
Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit.
Cryptocarya sp.
Cryptocarya turrilliana A.C.Sm.
Endiandra elaeocarpa Gillespie
Endiandra gillespiei A.C.Sm.
Endiandra monticola A.C.Sm.
Endiandra sp.
Litsea sp.
Geniostoma macrophyllum Gillespie
Geniostoma vitiense Gilg & Benedict
Neuburgia corynocarpa (A. Gray) Leenh.
Grewia sp.
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Sida acuta Burm.f.Fl.
Sida rhombifolia L.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
molau
tadano
gadoa
dava
duva
vesi wai
molaca
mavota
106
dalovoci, duvula
nuqanuqa
duvu
damabi
lidi
damabi
diriniu
damabi
boiboida
boiboida lailai
bo
siti
vau
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., poss.nat.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Malvaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Melastomaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Moraceae
Urena lobata L.
Astronidium confertiflorum (A.Gray) Markgraf
Astronidium degeneri A.C.Sm.
Astronidium inflatum (A.C.Smith) A.C.Smith
Astronidium macranthum (A.C.Smith) A.C.Smith
Astronidium parviflorum A.Gray
Astronidium robustum (Seem.) A.C.Smith
Astronidium sessile (A.C.Smith ) A.C.Smith
Astronidium sp.
Astronidium storckii Seem.
Astronidium tomentosum (Seem.) A.C.Smith
Clidemia hirta (L.)D.
Melastoma denticulatum Labill.
Aglaia achiboldiana
Aglaia elegans Gillespie
Aglaia sp.
Aglaia vitiensis A.C.Sm.
Dysoxylum lenticellare Gillespie
Dysoxylum quercifolium (Seem.) A.C.Smith
Dysoxylum richii (A.Gray) C.DC.
Dysoxylum seemannii Gillespie
Dysoxylum sp.
Swietenia macrophylla King
Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq.
Vavaea amicorum Benth.
Vavaea degeneri A.C.Sm.
Vavaea harveyi Seem.
Vavaea megaphylla C.H.Wright
Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth.
Entada phaseoioides (L.) Merr.
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit
Mimosa pudica L.
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Ficus barclayana (Miq.) Miq.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
dava
astronidium
astronidium
astronidium
astronidium
astronidium
astronidium
dava
astronidium
astronidium
koster's curse
107
kautoa
kautoa
kautoa levu
mala
malamala
mala
tarawau kei rakaka
malamala
mahogany
mahogany
cevua
cevua
cevua
cevua draulevu
walai
vaivai
raintree
ai masi
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Myrisinaceae
Myrisinaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Ficus fulvopilosa Summerh.
Ficus greenwoodii Summerhayes
Ficus masonii Horne ex Baker
Ficus obliqua Forst.f.Fl.
Ficus pritchardii Seem.
Ficus smithii Horne ex Baker
Ficus sp.
Ficus storckii (scabrous) Seem.
Ficus tinctoria Forst.f.Fl.
Ficus vitiensis Seem.
Malaisia scandens (Lour.) Plaunch.
Streblus anthropophagorum (Seem.) Corner
Rapanea myricifolia (A.Gray) Mez
Tapeinosperma sp.
Myristica castaneifolia A.Gray
Myristica chartacea Gillespie
Myristica gillespieana A.C.Smith
Myristica grandifolia A.DC.
Myristica macarantha A.C.Smith
Tapeinosperma hornei Mez
Decaspermum vitiense (A.Gray) Niedenzu
Metrosideros collina (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) A.Gray
Psidium guajava L.
Syzygium amicorum (A.Gray) Müll.Stuttg.
Syzygium confertiflorum (A.Gray) Müll.Stuttg.
Syzygium corynocarpum (A.Gray) Müll.Stuttg.
Syzygium curvistylum (Gillespie) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium diffusum (Turrill) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium dubium (L.M.Perry) A.C.Sm.
Syzygium effusum (A.Gray) Müll.Stuttg.
Syzygium fijiense Perry
Syzygium gillespiei Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium gracilipes (A.Gray) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium grayi (Seem.) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
ai masi
ai masi
ai masi/baka ni viti
ai masi
lololo/losilosi
ai masi, nunu
ai masi/lolo/lololo
108
kaudamu
kaudamu draulailai
kaudamu male
kaudamu
male waqa
dasia
nuqa
vuga
quawa
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasidravu
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Olacaceae
Oleaceae
Oleaceae
Oleaceae
Onagraceae
Oxalidaceae
Passifloraceae
Passifloraceae
Phytolaccaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporaceae
Polygalaceae
Proteaceae
Proteaceae
Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston
Syzygium leucanthum L.M.Perry
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry
Syzygium minus A.C.Sm.
Syzygium neurocalyx (A.Gray) Christoph.
Syzygium nidie Guillaumin
Syzygium oblongifolium (Gillespie) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium phaeophyllum Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium purpureum (L.M.Perry) A.C.Sm.
Syzygium quadrangulatum (A.Gray) Merr. & Perry
Syzygium seemannianum Merr. & L.M.Perry
Syzygium sp.
Syzygium tetrapleurum L.M.Perry
Syzygium wolfii (Gillespie) Merr. & L.M.Perry
Pisonia umbellifera (J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.) Seem.
Anacolosa lutea Gillespie
Jasminum didymum G.Forst.
Jasminum simplicifolium G.Forst.
Jasminum sp.
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven
Oxalis corniculata L.
Passiflora foetida L.var.hispida (DC.ex Triana & Planch.) Killip
Passiflora suberosa L.
Rivina humilis L.
Peperomia lasiostigma var. carnosa C.DC.
Peperomia subroseispica C.DC.
Piper aduncum L.
Piper insectifugum C.DC. ex Seem.
Pittosporum arborescens Rich ex A.Gray
Pittosporum pickeringii A.Gray
Pittosporum rhytidocarpum A.Gray
Polygala paniculata L.
Turrillia ferruginea (A.C.Sm.) A.C.Sm.
Turrillia vitiensis (Turrill) A.C. Sm., comb.nov.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
kavika
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
yasiyasi
roro
kaukau makita
109
nuqanuqa
honulu
duva ni veikau
kauceuti, tivi
kauceuti
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Alphitonia franguloides A.Gray
Alphitonia zizyphoides (Spreng.) A.Gray
Crossostylis harveyi Benth.
Dolicholobium latifolium A.Gray
Dolicholobium macgregorii Horne ex Baker
Dolicholobium oblongifolium A.Gray
Gardenia taitensis DC.
Hedyotis sp.
Mastixiodendron sp.
Morinda citrifolia L.
Morinda myrtifolia A.Gray
Mussaenda raiateensis J.W.Moore
Ophiorrhiza peploides A.Gray
Psychotria ampullacea A.C.Sm.
Psychotria argantha A.C.Sm.
Psychotria confertiloba A.C.Sm.
Psychotria eumorphanthus Fosberg
Psychotria glabra (Turrill) Fosberg
Psychotria gracilior A.C.Sm.
Psychotria leptantha A.C.Sm.
Psychotria roseata (Fosberg) A.C.Sm.
Psychotria sp.
Psychotria turbinata A.Gray
Psychotria vitiensis Fosberg
Psydrax odorata (Forst.f.) A.C.Smith & S.Darwin
Spermacoce sp.
Tarenna sambucina (G.Forst.) T.Durand ex Drake
Timonius affinis A.Gray
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Osbeck
Euodia hortensis J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.
Melicope cucullata (Gillespie) A.C.Smith
Melicope vitiensis (A.C.Sm.) comb.nov.
Micromelum minutum(Forst.f.)Seem.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
doi
doi
soso ni ura
soso ni ura levu
soso ni ura
jale ni veikau
duvula
kura
110
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
psychotria
degedege, tabulina
soso ni ura levu
psychotria
vakarube ni davui
dogo ni vanua/dogo ni veikau
moli kana
moli kana
uci
drautolu
drautolu
qiqila
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Saurauiaceae
Simaroubaceae
Smilacaceae
Solanaceae
Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Tiliaceae
Tiliaceae
Tiliaceae
Tiliaceae
Triuridaceae
Ulmaceae
Ulmaceae
Ulmaceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.
Elattostachys falcata (A.Gray) Radlk.
Guioa sp.
Koelreuteria elegans (Seem.) A.C.Smith
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.
Sapindus sp.
Sapindus vitiensis A.Gray
Burckella fijiensis (Hemsl.) A.C.Sm. & S.P.Darwin
Burckella richii (A.Gray) H.J.Lam
Burckella sp.
Palaquium fidjiense Pierre ex Dubard
Palaquium hornei (Hartog ex Baker) Dubard
Palaquium porphyreum A.C.Sm. & S.P.Darwin
Planchonella grayana H.St.John
Planchonella sp.
Planchonella vitiensis Gillespie
Saurauia rubicunda Seem.
Amaroria soulameoides A.Gray
Smilax vitiensis (Seem.) A.DC.
Solanum torvum Sw.
Heritiera ornithocephala Kosterm.
Melochia vitiensis A.Gray
Wikstroemia foetida (L. f.) A. Gray
Grewia crenata (J.R.&G.Forst) Schinz & Guillaumin
Trichospermum calyculatum (Seem.) Burret.
Trichospermum richii (A.Gray) Seem.
Triumfetta procumbens G. Forst.
Andruris vitiensis (A.C.Sm.) Giesen
Girroniera celtidifolia Gaud.
Parasponia andersonii Planch.
Trema cannabina Lour.
Dendrocnide harveyi (Seem.) Chew
Elatostema tenellum A.C.Smith
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
usi
vure/marasa
manawi
dawa
bau
111
bau
bau
cevua, sacau
bauvudi
bausa
sarosaro
sarosaro
midra/mimila
vasa ni veikau, sasawira
warusi
kosipeli
rosarosa/rogi
siti
mako loa
mako
sisisi
drou
drou
salato
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., poss.end.
Indg., nat., poss.end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., poss.cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
112
Urticaceae
Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew
Urticaceae
Leucosyke corymbulosa Benth. & Hook.f. ex Drake
Urticaceae
Pipturus vitiensis A.C.Smith
Urticaceae
Procris pedunculata (J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.) Wedd.
Verbenaceae
Faradaya ovalifolia (A.Gray) Seem.
Verbenaceae
Lantana camara L.
Verbenaceae
Premna protrusa A.C.Smith & S.Darwin
Verbenaceae
Premna serratifolia L.
Verbenaceae
Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.) Sims
Verbenaceae
Vitex trifolia L.
Vitaceae
Cayratia seemanniana A.C.Smith
Vittariaceae
Pteris ensiformis Burm. f.
Angiosperm – Monocotyledons
Agavaceae
Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A.Chev.
Amaryllidaceae
Crinum asiaticum L.
Araceae
Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) G.Don
Araceae
Epiprenum pinnatum (L.) Engl.
Araceae
Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott
Araliaceae
Cyphosperma tanga (H.E.Moore) H.E.Moore
Arecaceae
Balaka diffusa Hodel
Arecaceae
Balaka longirostris Becc.
Arecaceae
Cocos nucifera L.
Arecaceae
Metroxylon vitiense (H.Wendl.) H.Wendl.ex Hook.f.
Arecaceae
Physokentia rosea H.E.Moore
Arecaceae
Veitchia joannis H.Wendl.
Arecaceae
Veitchia vitiensis (H.Wendl.) H.E.Moore
Commelinaceae
Aneilema vitiense Seem.
Cyperaceae
Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalziel
Cyperaceae
Kyllinga polyphylla Willd. ex Kunth
Cyperaceae
Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw.
Cyperaceae
Scleria polycarpa Boeck.
Euphorbiaceae
Macaranga seemannii (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.
Flagellariaceae
Flagellaria indica L.
Orchidaceae
Appendicula sp.
wavudi
lantana
yaro
yaro
dralakaka
qai, vasili
viavia
via gaga
yalu
dalo nitana
tanga
balaka
balaka (big fruit)
niu, coconut
soga
physokentia
niusawa
niuniu
Intrd., adv.
navua sedge
davo
alu
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end
Indg., nat., end.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Pandanaceae
Pandanaceae
Pandanaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Bulbophyllum incommodum Kores
Bulbophyllum longiscapum Rolfe
Bulbophyllum sp.
Calanthe hololeuca Rchb.f.
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Bl.
Cynorckis fastigiata Thouars
Diplocaulobium tipuliferum (Reichenb.f.) Kraenzl.
Erythrodes parvula Kores
Hetaeria whitmeei Rchb.f.
Macodes cf. petola
Nervilia cf. aragoana
Nervilia cf. punctata
Oberonia cf. equitans
Pristiglottis longiflora (Rchb.f.) Kores
Spathoglottis pacifica Reichenb.f.
Freycinetia storckii Seem.
Pandanus sp.
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Centosteca lappacea (L.) Desv.
Coix lacryma-jobi L.
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Imperata conferta (Presl) Ohwi
Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warb. ex K.Schum. & Lauterb.
Paspalum conjugatum Bergius
Paspalum distichum L.
Paspalum orbiculare Forst.f.
Paspalum paniculatum L.
Paspalum vaginatum Sw.
Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) J.A.&J.H.Schultes
Saccharum edule Hassk.
Schizostachyum glaucifolium (Rupr.)Munro
Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
113
varavara
wame
pandanus
vadra
paragrass
job's tears
gasau
mission grass
duruka
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., rare
Indg; nat., rare
Indg; nat., rare
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., cult.
Intrd., adv.
Intrd., cult.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., cult.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
114
Poaceae
Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br.
Poaceae
Sporobolus sp.
Taccaceae
Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia parksii (Gillespie) A.C.Sm.
Zingiberaceae
Geanthus cevuga (Seem.) Loesener
Ferns and Fern Allies
Acanthaceae
Graptophyllum insularum (A.Gray) A.C.Smith
Aspidiaceae
Blechnum orientale L.
Aspidiaceae
Blechum pyramidatum (Lam.) Urb.
Aspidiaceae
Tectaria latifolia (Forster) Copeland
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium australasicum Hooker
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium nidus L.
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium polyodon Forster
Cyatheaceae
Culcita straminea (Labillardiere) Maxon
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea affinis (Forster) Swartz
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea alata Copeland
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea hornei (Baker) Copel.
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea lunulata (G. Forst.) Copel.
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea medullaris Sw.
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea propinqua Mett.
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea sp.
Cyatheaceae
Cyathea truncata (Brackenridge) Copeland
Cyatheaceae
Dicksonia brackenridgei Mettenius
Davalliaceae
Davallia solida Ogata
Davalliaceae
Nephrolepis biserrata (Swartz) Schott
Davalliaceae
Nephrolepis hirsutula (Forster) Presl
Dilleniaceae
Dillenia biflora (A.Gray) Martelli ex Dur.& Jacks
Equisetaceae
Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. debile (Roxb.) Hauke
Gleicheniaceae
Dicranopteris linearis (Burmann) Underwood
Gleicheniaceae
Dicranopteris sp.
Gleicheniaceae
Gleichenia sp.?
Hypolepidaceae
Histiopteris incisa (Thunberg) J.Smith
Lindsaeaceae
Lindsaea ensifolia Swartz
Marattiaceae
Angiopteris evecta (Forster) Hoffman
locoloco
cevuga damu
ota loa
birds nest
balabala
balabala
balabala
balabala
cyathea (monasavu)
balabala
balabala
balabala
kuluva
qato
basovi
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., poss.nat.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., rare.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Intrd., adv.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Family
Scientific Name
Local name
Distribution
indg.=indigenous, nat.=native, end.=endemic, cmm=common, intr.-introduced, cult.-cultivated, edv.=adventive
115
Marattiaceae
Marattia smithii Mettenius ex Kuhn
Polypodiaceae
Belvisia mucronata (Fee) Copeland
Polypodiaceae
Phymatosorus grossus (Langsdorff et Fischer) Brownlie
Psilotaceae
Psilotum nudum (L.) Palisot de Beauvois
Schizaeaceae
Lygodium reticulatum Schkuhr
Selaginellaceae
Selaginella sp.
Thelypteridaceae
Christella harveyi (Mettenius) Holttum
Gymnosperms
Araucariaceae
Agathis macrophylla (Lindl.) Mast.
Gnetaceae
Gnetum gnemon L.
Pinaceae
Pinus caribaea Morelet
Podocarpaceae
Acmopyle sahniana Buchh.& N.E.Gray
Podocarpaceae
Dacrycarpus imbricatus (Blume) de Laub.
Podocarpaceae
Dacrydium nidulum de Laubenfels
Podocarpaceae
Decussocarpus vitiensis (Seem.) de Laub.
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus affinis Seem.
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don
SUMMARY: 100 Families, 258 Genera
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
dakua makadre
sukau
caribbean pine
drautabua
amunu
yaka
dakua salusalu
kuasi lailai
kuasi
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Indg., nat., end.
Indg., nat., cmm.
Appendix 3. Summary statistics of vegetation community structure assessment plots
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T1P1
17.94314,
177.95961
17.94322,
177.95950
17.94289,
177.95956
17.94287,
177.95954
17.94297,
177.95960
17.94327,
177.95962
17.94543,
177.96419
17.94533,
177.96411
17.94533,
177.96421
17.94556,
177.96419
17.94560,
177.96428
17.94539,
177.96440
17.94550,
177.96444
17.94530,
177.96448
17.94539,
177.96448
17.94530,
177.96438
17.94335,
177.96243
17.943384,
177.96234
17.943268,
177.96216
17.94156,
177.95419
17.94159,
177.95659
T1P2
T1P3
T1P4
T1P5
T1P6
T2P1
T2P2
T2P3
July 19
2012
T2P4
T2P5
116
T2P6
T2P7
T2P8
T2P9
T2P10
T3P1
T3P2
T3P3
July 23
2012
T4P1
T4P2
Principal
Vegetation Type
Dry Forest
Forest/Habitat
Type
River flat
# Ind. ≥
5cm
13
# Tree
spp.
6
Most common
spp.
Cit_gra
Largest
trees
Dys_sp.
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
5.0-72.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
8404
Dys_sp.
47
Dry Forest
River flat
12
4
Cit_gra
17.7
3.0- 42.0
6855
Dys_ric
76
Dry Forest
River flat
9
5
5
10.5
6.0-17.0
666
Cit_gra
59
Dry Forest
River flat
13
Dys_que
6
19.13
6.0-61.0
7099
Dys_len
40
Dry Forest
River flat
None
Dys_que
4
18.3
7.0-34.0
2331
Dys_len
39
Dry Forest
5
Bac_sp.
Syz_mal
7
13.07
7.0-29.0
1608
Syz_mal
42
20
6
Syz_mal
Bis_jav
13
28
10.0-70.0
10432
Bis_jav
37
River flat
18
9
Syz_mal
Syz_mal
6
20
10.9-27.0
2411
Syz_mal
50
Dry Forest
River flat
17
8
Syz_mal
Syz_spp.
10
26.57
10.0-57.0
7937
Syz_spp.
32
Dry Forest
River flat
15
5
Cit_gra
Syz_spp.
5
24.8
12.6-62.0
3807
Bis_jav
79
Dry Forest
River flat
15
7
Syz_mal
Cit_gra
10
31.21
11.1-89.0
13645
Cit_gra
46
Dry Forest
River flat
10
5
Syz_mal
Syz_mal
7
18.71
10.3-36.0
2319
Syz_mal
69
Dry Forest
River flat
15
10
Syz_mal
Dys_ric
8
23.75
10.4-86.0
7369
Dys_ric
80
Dry Forest
River flat
24
10
Dys_sp.
16
30.93
10.4-61.2
22564
Dys_sp
61
Dry Forest
River flat
12
5
Den_har;
Lit_sp; Dys_sp
Syz_mal
End_sp.
6
19.16
11.3-26.9
1847
End_sp.
31
Dry Forest
River flat
13
6
Syz_spp.
Deg_vit
7
14.45
10.4-34.0
1939
Deg_vit
48
Dry Forest
River flat
13
8
Cit_gra
Bis_jav
11
14
5.0-50.0
4148
Bis_jav
45
Dry Forest
River flat
12
11
Dys_sp.
Dys_sp.
13
23
7.5-51.0
9054
Dys_sp.
42
Dry Forest
River flat
11
10
Syz_mal
Pom_pin
13
28
5.7-67.0
15753
Pom_pin
22
Dry Forest
Ridge top
23
13
Fic_obl
16
23.1
10.5-132.0
23788
Fic_obl
57
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
51
21
Dys_sp.;
Gar_myr
Lit_sp.;
Cya_sp
Bis_jav
28
17.3
10.0-76.0
20999
Bis_jav
26
Range (cm)
9
Av.
dbh(cm)
22.3
Dys_ric.
6
Cit_gra
Cit_gra
8
Cit_gra
7
7
River flat
11
Dry Forest
River flat
Dry Forest
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T4P3
17.94151,
177.95689
17.94138,
177.95692
17.94133,
177.95702
17.94123,
177.95702
17.94107,
177.95716
17.94068,
177.95721
17.94073,
177.95702
17.94082,
177.95722
17.94452,
177.96008
17.94464,
177.96012
17.94451,
177.96014
17.94453,
177.95968
17.94451,
177.95967
17.94151,
177.95428
17.94166,
177.95430
17.94180,
177.9543
17.94182,
177.95452
17.94196,
177.95440
17.94149,
177.95449
17.94148,
177.95459
17.94151,
177.95469
17.94161,
177.95473
T4P4
T4P5
T4P6
T4P7
T4P8
T4P9
T4P10
T5P1
T5P2
T5P3
T5P4
117
T5P5
T6P1
July 19
2012
T6P2
T6P3
T6P4
T6P5
T6P6
T6P7
T6P8
T6P9
Principal
Vegetation Type
Dry Forest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Ridge flat
# Ind. ≥
5cm
49
# Tree
spp.
21
Most common
spp.
Lit_sp.
Largest
trees
Bis_jav
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
10.3-52.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
14652
Bis_jav
32
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
35
15
Cit_gra
28.8
10.0-67.0
15165
Dys_que
31
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
28
13
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
28
14
Cit_gra;
Psy _sp.
Lit_sp.
14
31.07
11.3-86.0
15050
Bis-jav
47
Dys_que
15
23.93
10.0-64.0
9955
Dys_que
32
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
21
10
Den_vit
Can_sp.
17
13.65
10.0-33.3
3493
Can_sp.
12
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
36
17
Lit_sp.
Bis_jav
21
27.86
11.0-77.0
18287
Bis_jav
48
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
40
25
Syz_mal
Dys_sp.
24
19.58
10.0-76.0
11565
Dys_sp.
53
Dry Forest
Ridge flat
34
14
Gar_myr
Bur_sp.
23
22
10.0-57.0
12037
Bur_sp.
21
Dry Forest
Slope
16
8
Cyn_sp.
9
13.6
6.0-34.0
2980
Cyn_sp.
66
Dry Forest
Slope
9
6
Cal_vit;
Cyn_ sp.
Cal_vit
Cal_vit
8
18.4
6.0-40.0
2938
Cal_vit
67
Dry Forest
Slope
13
10
Cal_vit
Mac_see
7
14.3
7.0-25.0
2160
Mac_see
40
Dry Forest
Slope
8
7
Cya_lun
Cya_lun
4
13.5
7.0-28.0
1346
Cya_lun
36
Dry Forest
Slope
13
10
Cya_lun
Neo_for
9
24.1
8.0-113.0
12844
Neo_for
76
Dry Forest
Slope
27
11
Dys_que
13
40.62
11.0-120.0
28675
Dys_que
63
Dry Forest
Slope
34
13
Dys_sp.;
Lit_sp.; Den_vit
Lit_sp.
Dys_que
18
25.6
10.0-64.3
13853
Dys_que
53
Dry Forest
Slope
35
10
Lit_sp.
Dys_que
16
29.75
10.0-99.0
19330
Dys_que
77
Dry Forest
Slope
27
9
Den_vit
Dys_len
11
22.18
10.5-67.0
6485
Dys_len
54
Dry Forest
Slope
25
11
Den_vit; Lit_sp.
Fic_obl
17
26.35
11.3-148.0
23368
Fic_obl
74
Dry Forest
Slope
37
14
Den_vit
Dys_sp.
20
20.35
10.0-58.0
9582
Dys_sp.
58
Dry Forest
Slope
27
13
Lit_sp.
Dys_ric
19
25.1
10.0-67.0
12491
Dys_ric
36
Dry Forest
Slope
20
14
Lit_sp.
Dys_ric
15
24.46
10.6-64.0
10208
Dys_ric
32
Dry Forest
Slope
21
10
Lit_sp.
Ela_kam
11
18.63
10.4-34..0
3770
Ela_kam
24
Range (cm)
28
Av.
dbh(cm)
23.34
Dys_sp.
18
Bis_jav
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T6P10
17.94173,
177.95450
17.95583,
177.96355
17.95568,
177.96365
17.95557,
177.96371
17.95546,
177.96380
17.95532,
177.96381
17.95492,
177.96363
17.95481,
177.96358
17.95334,
177.96445
17.95330,
177.96435
17.95340,
177.96434
17.97304,
177.99869
17.97302,
177.99860
17.97271,
177.99871
17.97259,
177.99869
17.97259,
177.99867
17.97256,
177.99866
17.97272,
177.99877
17.97277,
177.99882
17.97278,
177.99886
17.97304,
177.99870
17.97304,
177.99867
T7P1
T7P2
T7P3
T7P4
T7P5
T7P6
T7P7
T7P8
T7P9
T7P10
July 20
118
2012
T8P1/753
T8P2/750
T8P3/724
T8P4/726
T8P5/728
T8P6/731
T8P7/721
T8P8/719
T8P9/718
T8P10/753
T10P1/733
Principal
Vegetation Type
Dry Forest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Slope
# Ind. ≥
5cm
23
# Tree
spp.
14
Most common
spp.
Lit_sp.
Largest
trees
Ela_kam
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
10.0-33.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
4547
Ela_kam
18
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
37
26
Cal_vit
22.97
10.1-64.3
15858
Cal_vit
38
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
32
21
21
18.33
10.2-30.7
6138
Cal_vit
35
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
22
Cal_vit
11
17.63
10.0-49.0
3670
Cal_vit
55
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
Dac_nid
23
19.14
10.0-41.0
7694
Dac_nid
17
Upland Rainforest
Syz_spp.
10
30
12.0-65.0
9058
Syz_spp.
37
Gar_myr.
Syz_spp.
10
15.67
5.0-150.0
19772
Aga_mac
87
27
Cal_vit
End_mac
18
18.9
10.3-37.0
5938
Bur_sp.
23
34
17
Syz_spp.
Dac_nid
19
19.47
10.0-67.0
9115
Dac_nid
48
Ridge top
31
15
Syz_spp.
Dac_nid
18
21
10.0-59.0
8550
Dac_nid
63
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
29
18
Syz_spp.
20
17.85
10.0-27.0
5575
Syz_spp.
39
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
20
17
none
Syz_spp.;
Agl_spp.
Cal_vit
12
17.55
7.0-50.0
4107
Cal_vit
28
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
17
Gir_cel
Dys_sp.
11
15.79
6.0-40.0
1437
Gir_cel
4
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
22
14
Gir_cel
Cal_vit
18
20.09
7.0-58.0
11231
Cal_vit
25
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
27
16
Gir_cel
Syz_sp.
12
12.93
5.0-27.0
2468
Lit_sp.
4
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
25
15
Syz_sp.
Aga_mac
14
20.12
5.0-111.0
16698
Aga_mac
56
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
20
16
Psy_ sp.
Cal_vit
16
15.63
7.0-46.0
4655
Cal_vit
34
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
21
16
Lit_sp.
Cal_vit
12
14.33
5.0-38.0
3120
Cal_vit
10
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
17
13
Lit_sp.
12
16.11
7.0-30.0
4038
Lit_sp.
36
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
18
14
Lit_sp.
Lit_sp;.
Fic_smi
Lit_sp.
13
15.33
7.0-34.0
3947
Lit_sp.
45
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
18
12
Myr_cas
11
18.94
5.0-75.0
8757
Myr_cas
49
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
53
29
Gir_cel;
Lit_sp.
Gar_pse
Aga_mac
23
13.54
5.0-140.0
23442
Aga_mac
63
Range (cm)
14
Av.
dbh(cm)
18.36
Her_oli
29
Cal_vit
Cal_vit
16
Gar_myr
40
21
Ridge top
29
16
Cal_vit;
Lit_spp.
Syz_spp.
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
26
17
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
41
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
Upland Rainforest
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T10P2/731
17.94980,
177.99630
17.95120,
177.99072
17.95328,
177.00103
17.95050,
177.99830
17.95051,
177.99851
17.95540,
177.96350
17.95530,
177.96342
17.95523,
177.96352
17.95271,
177.96400
17.95267,
177.96400
17.95234,
177.96401
17.95244,
177.96401
17.95254,
177.96401
17.95234,
177.96351
17.97644,
178.0018
17.97345,
177.99920
17.97337,
177.99918
17.97339,
177.99918
17.95030,
177.99750
17.95000,
177.99770
17.95310,
178.00850
17.95300,
178.00840
T10P3/712
T10P4/663
T10P5/728
T10P6/737
T11P1
T11P2
T11P3
T11P4
July 21
2012
T11P5
T11P6
T11P7
119
T11P8
T11P9
T9P1/708
T9P2/707
March 23
2013
T9P3/698
T9P4/699
T10P5/726
T10P6/735
March 23 T12P1/1104
2013
T12P2/1113
Principal
Vegetation Type
Upland Rainforest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Ridge top
# Ind. ≥
5cm
51
# Tree
spp.
21
Most common
spp.
Syz_sp.
Largest
trees
Aga_mac
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
5.0-62.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
10229
Aga_mac
34
Upland Rainforest
Ridge slope
55
24
Syz_sp.
13.4
6.0-152.0
22879
Aga_mac
75
Upland Rainforest
Ridge top
54
23
20
14.61
5.0-107.0
16135
Dec_vit
18
Upland Rainforest
Flat
30
End_mac
16
15.03
5.0-58.0
95
End_mac
31
Upland Rainforest
Flat
Gir_cel;
Gar_pse
Cry_spp.
Myr_sp.
11
15.46
5.0-44.0
93
End_mac
34
Upland Rainforest
Cal_vit
14
13.49
5.0-65.0
7205
Cal_vit
22
End_mac
18
20.65
5.0-65.0
13351
End_mac
33
19
Cya_lun;
Cal_vit
None
End_spp.
16
19.2
5.0-61.5
10760
End_mac
27
44
25
Cal_vit
Aga_mac
22
22.82
10.0-69.0
11958
Aga_mac
31
Slope
44
23
Cya_aff
End_mac
21
19.71
10.5-48.0
8103
End_mac
23
Upland Rainforest
Slope
34
23
Sau_rub
Sem_vit
14
25.5
10.7-47.0
8615
Sem_vit
20
Upland Rainforest
Slope
30
18
Dol_lat
Deg_vit
10
18.48
10.0-33.0
3051
Deg_vit
27
Upland Rainforest
Slope
23
18
None
Buc_vit
10
20.1
10.0-63.0
4901
Buc_vit
64
Upland Rainforest
Slope
10
8
Gir_cel
End_mac
5
14.5
11.0-41.1
2717
End_mac
47
Upland Rainforest
Slope
29
19
Gar_myr
Gar_myr
11
17.38
5.0-89.0
16348
Gar_myr
48
Upland Rainforest
Slope
23
16
Gir_cel
Syz_sp.
14
18
7.0-63.0
8953
Syz_sp.
33
Upland Rainforest
Slope
22
13
none
Cal_vit
15
20.09
7.0-68.0
11541
Par_ins
31
Upland Rainforest
Slope
20
14
Lit_ sp.
Lit_sp.
14
19.5
6.0-65.0
8776
Lit_sp.
58
Upland Rainforest
Slope
25
12
Cya_sp.
17
15.72
5.0-54.0
7129
Cya_sp.
31
Upland Rainforest
Slope
40
21
Gar_pse
21
10.8
5.0-32.0
3320
Gar_pse
19
Cloud Rainforest
Slope
47
12
Gar_pse;
Gir_cel
Gir_cel;
Myr_sp.
Dic_bra
Cal_vit
25
10.51
5.0-22.0
4040
Cal_vit
85
Cloud Rainforest
Slope
34
11
Cya_sp.
Cal_vit
24
12.26
5.0-41.0
4720
Cal_vit
31
Range (cm)
24
Av.
dbh(cm)
12.37
Aga_mac
26
Gar-pse
Dec_vit
16
Cya_sp.
24
14
Slope
32
20
Upland Rainforest
Slope
21
14
Upland Rainforest
Slope
23
Upland Rainforest
Slope
Upland Rainforest
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T12P3/1090
17.95290,
178.00820
17.95260,
178.00770
17.95220,
178.00720
17.95270,
178.00790
17.95210,
178.00700
17.95250,
178.00750
17.95180,
178.00610
17.95150,
178.00580
17.94950,
177.98990
17.98216,
178.00836
17.98215,
178.00835
17.98210,
178.00830
17.98218,
178.00837
17.98209,
78.00830
17.98208,
178.00829
17.98206,
178.00825
17.98200,
178.00820
17.98204,
178.00818
17.98210,
178.00815
17.97558,
178.00117
17.97550,
178.00116
17.97555,
178.00115
T12P4/1068
T12P5/1034
T12P6/1071
T12P7/1035
T12P8/1052
T12P9/1025
T12P10/990
T12P11/1022
T13P1/484
T13P2/482
T13P3/480
120
T13P4/485
T13P5/479
T13P6/478
March 23
2013
T13P7/480
T13P8/481
T13P9/482
T13P10/482
T14P1/614
T14P2/610
T14P3/612
Principal
Vegetation Type
Cloud Rainforest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Slope
# Ind. ≥
5cm
35
# Tree
spp.
14
Most common
spp.
Cya_sp.
Largest
trees
Cal_vit
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
5.0-60.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
5622
Cal_vit
48
Cloud Rainforest
Slope
31
16
Syz_sp.
11.95
5.0-39.0
94
Ast_ sp.
18
Cloud Rainforest
Slope
32
12
16
12.94
5.0-34.0
91
Syz_sp.
18
Cloud Rainforest
Flat
42
Syz_sp.
23
12.04
5.0-30.0
87
Syz_sp.
35
Cloud Rainforest
Flat
Mac_see
Deg_vit
28
13.7
5.0-43.0
15663
Deg_vit
16
Cloud Rainforest
22
Syz_sp.
Cya_ cf. ins
21
12.84
5.0-30.0
87
Cya_ cf. ins
26
30
13
Syz_sp.
Cya_sp.
18
11.95
5.0-31.0
4800
Cya_sp.
23
Ridge top
42
19
Cit_ vit
Cal_vit
23
13.63
5.0-36.0
5526
Cal_vit
22
Cloud Rainforest
Ridge top
70
22
Syz_sp.
Syz_sp.
35
5.0-181.0
97
Syz_sp.
82
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
33
19
Gir_ cel
Bur_fij
22
14.67
5.0-49.0
7670
Bur_ fij
23
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
11
Gon_pun
13
13.2
6.0-36.0
3909
Man_flo
23
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
9
8
Gir_ cel;
Vei_vit
none
Syz_ sp.
6
15.22
5.0-42.0
2432
Syz_sp.
56
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
17
9
Gar_ myr
Cal_vit
7
14.47
5.0-57.0
4825
Cal_vit
49
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
18
8
Gar_myr
Myr_cas
11
22
5.0-74.0
11694
Cal_vit
42
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
17
10
Gar_ myr
Bur_fij
11
16.71
6.0-51.0
5218
Bur_fij
37
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
12
Syz_sp.
14
16.1
5.0-32.0
4926
Syz_sp.
16
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
11
Cal_vit;
Gir_cel
Fic_smi
End_mac
14
22.77
5.0-98.0
16565
End_mac
45
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
7
Gar_myr
Syz_sp.
3
8
5.0-15.0
425
Syz_sp.
25
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
24
14
Gar_myr
Cal_vit
17
18
5.0-55.0
10226
Cal_vit
29
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
39
19
Gar_myr
End_mac
17
14.21
5.0-95.0
12100
End_mac
55
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
36
14
Gar_myr
Can_har
18
14.33
5.0-37.0
6551
Can_har
20
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
28
17
Syz_sp.
Syz_sp.
12
14.14
6.0-41.0
5691
Syz_sp.
37
Range (cm)
16
Av.
dbh(cm)
11.91
Ast_ sp.
10
Cya_sp.
Cya_med
12
Cya_ sp.
54
15
Ridge top
41
Cloud Rainforest
Slope-ridge
Cloud Rainforest
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T14P4/613
17.97558,
178.00114
17.97557,
178.00119
17.97556,
178.00118
17.97552,
178.00113
17.97549,
178.00109
17.97550,
178.00112
17.97540,
178.00109
17.98268,
178.00916
17.98267,
178.00910
17.98270,
178.00911
17.98265,
178.00915
17.98261,
178.00910
17.98269,
178.00917
17.98259,
178.00911
17.98258,
178.00910
17.98257,
178.00909
17.97644,
178.00183
17.97479,
178.00065
17.97487,
178.00073
17.97491,
178.00079
17.97450,
178.00083
17.97503,
178.00086
T14P5/619
T14P6/614
T14P7/612
T14P8/599
T14P9/595
T14P10/598
T15P1/490
T15P2/489
T15P3/488
T15P4/486
March 23
121
2013
T15P5/492
T15P6/480
T15P7/479
T15P8/478
T15P9/476
T16P1/624
T16P2/623
March 23
2013
T16P3/622
T16P4/621
T16P5/620
T16P6/619
Principal
Vegetation Type
Lowland Rainforest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Ridge top
# Ind. ≥
5cm
22
# Tree
spp.
9
Most common
spp.
Gar_myr
Largest
trees
Fic_smi
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
5.0-25.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
3380
Gar_myr
69
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
33
15
Gar_myr
12.72
5.0-40.0
5223
Syz_sp.
22
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
28
12
13
13.32
6.0-48.0
5563
Cal_vit
42
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
15
Tur_vit
8
13.93
6.0-43.0
2910
Tur_vit
45
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
Gar_myr
Cal_vit
12
15.12
6.0-82.0
11423
Cal_vit
44
Lowland Rainforest
11
Gar_myr
Syz_sp.
20
16.34
5.0-62.0
8808
Syz_sp.
38
25
16
Gar_myr
Myr_mac
14
12.16
5.0-32.0
3460
Myr_mac
21
Slope
13
9
none
Fic_smi
8
14.08
5.0-24.0
114
Gar_myr
1
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
11
9
Gar_myr
Myr_cas
5
15.09
5.0-50.0
3219
Myr_cas
1
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
17
11
Gar_myr
Gar_myr
7
10.17
5.0-24.0
415
Gar_myr
19
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
12
8
Gar_myr
Gar_myr
7
17.5
5.0-52.0
3708
Gar_myr
61
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
18
7
Gar_myr
Syz_sp.
10
14.72
5.0-35.0
2339
Gar_myr
30
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
19
16
none
Pal_sp.
9
12.1
5.0-33.0
1836
Pal_sp.
1
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
20
11
Gar_myr
Myr_cas
13
17.55
5.0-46.0
5636
Myr_cas
47
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
13
8
Gar_myr
Sto_vit
7
15.08
5.0-78.0
8351
Sto_vit
2
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
23
11
Gar_myr
10
12.56
5.0-36.0
1006
Myr_cha
2
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
26
14
Gar_myr
Pal_ sp. ;
Myr_cha
End_mac
19
21.81
6.0-100.0
17213
End_mac
45
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
15
10
Gar_myr
Myr_cas
10
14.8
6.0-28.0
2962
Myr_cas
23
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
20
9
Gir_cel
Gar_myr
11
11.5
6.0-31.0
2478
Gar_myr
35
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
19
12
Gar_myr
Xyl_sp.
10
12.79
6.0-25.0
90
Gar_myr
38
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
22
11
Gar_myr
Bur_fij
15
15.32
5.0-36.0
5050
Bur_fij
19
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
26
15
Gar_myr
Syz_sp.
17
14.96
6.0-33.0
5526
Syz_sp.
26
Range (cm)
13
Av.
dbh(cm)
13.2
Syz_sp.
16
Gar_myr
Cal_vit
7
Gar_myr
25
12
Ridge top
29
Lowland Rainforest
Ridge top
Lowland Rainforest
Date
Plot #
Coordinates
T16P7/620
17.97508,
178.00088
17.974836,
178.00069
17.98269,
178.00917
17.95400,
177.99150
17.95281,
177.99173
T16P8/ 618
T2P1/492
March 23
2013
T1P2/657
T1P3/656
Principal
Vegetation Type
Lowland Rainforest
Forest/Habitat
Type
Slope
# Ind. ≥
5cm
28
# Tree
spp.
13
Most common
spp.
Gar_myr
Largest
trees
Cal_vit
# Ind. ≥ 10 cm
Dom. sp.
Rel. dom. (%)
5.0-40.0
B. area (stems ≥
10cm dbh)
3985
Cal_vit
29
Lowland Rainforest
Slope
21
10
Gar_myr
17.19
5.0-39.0
6494
Cal_vit
18
Lowland Rainforest
River flat
15
12
10
18.67
5.0-48.0
5028
Pal_por
14
Lowland Rainforest
River flat
33
Dec_vit
15
16.42
5.0-131.0
24156
Dec_vit
86
Lowland Rainforest
River flat
28
Deg_vit
20
16.36
5.0-55.0
7417
Deg_vit
30
Range (cm)
13
Av.
dbh(cm)
12.32
Cal_vit
13
Gar_myr
Pal_por
15
Gar_pse
16
End_gil
Keys to abbreviations of acronyms of species used are:
122
Aga_mac=Agathis macrophylla
Agl_sp.=Aglaia species
Amo_sou=Amoraria soulameoides
Ast_sp.=Astronidium species
Bac_sp.=Baccaurea species
Bis_jav=Bischofia javanica
Buc_vit=Buchanania vitiensis
Bur_fij=Burckella fijiensis
Bur_sp.=Burckella species
Cal_vit=Calophyllum vitiense
Can_har=Canarium harveyi
Can_sp.=Canarium species
Cit_gra=Citrus grandis
Cit_vit=Citronella vitiensis
Cry_sp.=Cryptocarya sp.
Cya_aff=Cyathea affinis
Cya_lun=Cyathea lunulata
Cya_sp.=Cyathea species
Cya_c.f. ins=Cyathocalyx cf. insularis
Cyn_fal=Cynometra falcata
Cyn_sp.=Cynometra species
Dac_nid=Dacrydium nidulum
Dec_vit=Decussocarpus vitiensis
Deg_vit=Degeneria vitiensis
Den_har=Dendrocnide harveyi
Den_vit=Dendrocnide vitiensis
Dic_bra=Dicksonia brackenridgei
Dol_lat=Dolicholobium latifolium
Dys_len=Dysoxylum lenticellare
Dys_que=Dysoxylum quercifolium
Dys_sp.=Dysoxylum species
Dys_ric=Dysoxylum richii
Ela_kam=Elaeocarpus kambi
End_gil=Endiandra gillespiei
End_sp.=Endiandra species
End_mac=Endospermum macrophyllum
Fic_obl=Ficus oblique
Fic_smi=Ficus smithii
Gar_myr= Garcinia myrtifolia
Gar_pse=Garcinia pseudoguttifera
Gar_sp=Garcinia species
Gir_cel=Gironniera celtidifolia
Gon_pun=Gonystylus punctatus
Hap_flo=Haplolobus floribundus
Her_oli=Hernandia olivacea
Lit_sp.=Litsea species
Mac_see=Macaranga seemannii
Mac_sp.=Macaranga species
Man_flo=Maniltoa floribunda
Man_gra=Maniltoa grandiflora
Myr_cha=Myristica chartacea
Myr_cas=Myristica castaneifolia
Neo_for=Neonauclea forsteri
Pal_por=Palaquium porphyreum
Pal_sp.=Palaquium species
Par_ins=Parinari insularum
Pom_pin=Pometia pinnata
Psy_sp.=Psychotria species
Psy_tur=Psychotria turbinata
Sau_rub=Saurauia rubicunda
Sem_vit=Semecarpus vitiensis
Sto_vit=Storckiella vitiensis
Syz_mal=Syzygium malaccense
Syz_spp.=Syzygium species
Tur_vit=Turrillia vitiensis
Vei_vit=Veitchia vitiensis
Xyl_sp.=Xylopia species
Other acronyms used are:
Veg. = Vegetation; #Ind. = number of individuals; com. = common; Av. = Average; dbh = diameter at breast height; B. area = Basal area; Dom. sp. = Dominant species; Rel. dom. = relative dominance
Appendix 4. Description of forest and non-forest habitat types
Veg. type
Lowland
Forest type
Flat
(river flat)
Impacts
Low
Forested
Lowland
Flat
Medium
Forested
Lowland
Ridge Top
Low
Forested
Lowland
Ridge
Medium
Forested
Lowland
Slope
Low
Forested
Lowland
Slope
Medium
Forested
Upland
Flat
Low
Forested
Upland
Ridge
Low
123
Cover
Forested
Habitat Description and its acronym
Primary forest, 75-100% canopy cover, 50-90% ground cover, >90% native
flora; general absence of weeds and invasive species; no known history of
logging. Farming and/or human habitation may have taken place since time
immemorial.
LfCF low
Transition (secondary and primary) forest; weeds, invasive and secondary
succession plants are present; may have history of damage from natural
disasters and/or human habitation.
LfCF medium
Primary forest; 75-100% crown cover with 25-50% ground cover; >90% native
flora; general absence of weeds and invasive species; no known history of
logging, mine exploration, farming; trees with dbh >35cm are common.
LfCR low
Transition (secondary and primary) forest; 50-75% canopy and ground cover;
high density of succession plants; history of selective logging and natural
disaster; overall absence of large trees (dbh >50cm)
LfCR medium
Primary forest, 75-100% canopy cover, <25-50% ground cover, >90% native
flora; no known history of logging, mine exploration, farming; trees with DBH
>35cm are common.
LfCS low
Transition (secondary and primary) forest; 50-75% canopy cover; 75-100%
ground cover; some invasive and weeds present and some culturally important
species. The forest is regularly visited by the local inhabitants.
LfCS medium
Assumed to have primary forest; high percentage of native flora.
Primary forest, 75-100% canopy cover, 50-75% ground cover with greater
diversity of herbs, shrubs and climbers; stems of trees covered with mosses
and liverworts; no known history of logging, >98% native flora. Lots of large
trees present.
Assessment
Observed and
assessed
Present but not
observed and
assessed.
Observed and
assessed
Present but not
assessed
Observed and
assessed
Present but not
assessed
Not observed on this
survey.
Observed and
assessed
Cover
Forested
Veg. type
Upland
Forest type
Slope
Impacts
Low
124
Low
Habitat Description and its acronym
Primary forest; 75-100% crown cover; 25-50% ground cover; stems of trees
covered with mosses and liverworts; no known history of logging, >98% native
flora.
Assumed to have primary forest; high percentage of native flora.
Forested
Cloud Forest
Slope
Forested
Cloud Forest
Forested
Assessment
Observed and
assessed
Present but not visited
Flat
Low
Assumed to have primary forest; high percentage of native flora.
Present but not visited
Cloud Forest
Ridge
Low
Assumed to have primary forest; high percentage of native flora.
Present but not visited
Forested
Dry Forest
Riparian
Medium
Forested
Dry Forest
Riparian
Low
Present, observed but
not assessed
Observed but not
assessed
Non-forested
Talasiga/
grassland
Woody
shrubland
Medium
Non-forested
Talasiga/
grassland
River bank/
riparian
High
Smaller creeks and streams without associated flood plains; 75-100% crown
cover.
Mostly restricted to the upper streams/creek and head waters; canopy is closed
with lots of bryophytes and filmy ferns on stream banks. General lack of
invasive and weedy species.
Here a mixture of the grass Pennisetum polystachyon, the reed Miscanthus
floridulus and woody shrubs of most secondary succession plants with an
occasional clump of the native bamboo Schizostachyum glaucifolium
characterises this habitat.
These are systems that are dominated by the grass P. polystachyon, the ferns
Pteridium spp. and Dicranopteris spp. Trees and shrubs are literally absent
except for some that may be found in gullys.
Observed but not
assessed
Observed but not
assessed.
Appendix 5. Herpetofauna suvey sites locations and sampling methods
Site Location (map reference points)
Vegetation description
Date
Ridge above base camp TOVH-15, 19
Ridge forest
TOVH-15, 16, 17, 18, 19
Ridge forest
TOVH-15, 19
Ridge forest
2
Wainirovurovu Stream
Stream and riparian vegetation
3
Mataemalu
TOVH- 3, 14
Mataemalu
TOVH- 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14
Nasa River
TOVH- 21, 22
Lowland forest
Sampling method
Weather
Time Span
Hours
21/7/2012 Opportunistic visual 100% cloud
Rain
22/7/2012 Standard sticky trap 100% cloud
Fine
23/7/2012 Standard visual
100% cloud
Fine
20/7/2012 Standard nocturnal 100% cloud
Fine
23/7/2012 Standard visual
100% cloud
Fine
23/7/2012 Standard sticky trap 100% cloud
Fine
23/7/2012 Standard nocturnal 10% cloud
Fine
0900-1400
5
1150-1330
25.5
1133-1415
2.5
1831-1931
1
0900-1330
4.5
0900-0900
24
1813-2036
2
21/3/2013 Standard nocturnal
1900-2000
1
1800-1930
1.5
1930-2030
1
1230-1430
(next day)
26
Nasa catchment
1
125
4
Lowland forest
Inland river bank
Waikarakarawa catchment
1
Wainivilekutu
Stream and riparian vegetation
2
Waikutukutuvatu
Stream and riparian vegetation
3
Waikarakarawa Base Camp
Stream and riparian vegetation
4
Waikarakarawa Base Camp
Stream bank
Mavuvu catchment
100% cloud
Fine
23/3/2013 Standard nocturnal 100% cloud
Fine
23/3/2013 Standard nocturnal 100% cloud
Fine
24/3/2012 Standard sticky trap 30% cloud
Fine
Site Location (map reference points)
Vegetation description
5
Main ridge to Mt. Vonolevu
Upland cloud forest
6
Main ridge into Mavuvu catchment
Lowland rainforest
Date
Sampling method
Weather
Opportunistic visual 100% cloud
Rain
Opportunistic visual 60% cloud
Time Span
Hours
1100-1500
4
0730-1230
4
126
Appendix 6. Conservation status of herpetofauna species known from Viti Levu
Target endemic and extirpated species (*) and species captured during this survey (†).
Scientific name
Common name
Fijian name
(Navosa dialect)
Conservation Status
Iguanas
*Banded iguana
Vokai, saumure
Viti Levu endemic
Critically Endangered
Candoia bibronii
Pacific boa
Gata (qwata)
Native
Ogmodon vitianus
*Fiji burrowing snake
Gata/ Bolo
Viti Levu endemic
Gehyra vorax
†Giant forest gecko
Moko kabi
Native
Gehyra oceanica
Oceanic gecko
Moko kabi
Native
Lepidodactylus lugubris
Mourning or Pacific gecko
Moko kabi
Introduced
Lepidodactylus manni
*Mann's Gecko
Moko kabi
Endemic
Nactus pelagicus
†Slender toed gecko
Moko
Native
Hemidactylus frenatus
House gecko
Introduced
Hemidactylus garnotti
Fox gecko
Introduced
Brachylophus bulabula
Snakes
Geckoes
Hemiphyllodactylus typus Indopacific tree gecko
Native
Skinks
Emoia nigra
*Pacific black skink
Moko loa
Emoia trossular
*Barred tree skink
Moko sari
Lipinia noctua
Moth skink
Native, extirpated from
Viti Levu
Native, extirpated from
Viti Levu
Native
Cryptoblepharus eximus
*Pygmy snake-eyed skink
Endemic
Emoia campbelli
*Montane tree skink
Endemic
Emoia concolor
*†Green tree skink
Emoia sp. novum?
*
Emoia impar
Blue-tailed copper-striped skink
Emoia cyanura
Brown-tailed copper-striped skink Moko sari (Boliti)
Native
Emoia parkeri
*†Bronze-headed skink
Moko sari
Endemic
Bufo marinus
†Cane toad
Boto karokaro
Introduced, invasive
Platymantis vitiensis
*†Fiji tree frog
Ula
Platymantis vitianus
*Fiji ground frog
Moko sari
Endemic
Endemic to Viti Levu
Moko sari
Native
Amphibians
Endemic, Near
Threatened
Ula, Dreli, Botoniviti Endemic, Critically
Endangered
127
Appendix 7. Avifauna species checklist, distribution and abundance
Common name
Status
Barking Pigeon
Black-face Shrikebill
Distribution
Endemic
VU
Abundance
(#/ km²)
157
Native
5
Endemic (subspecies endemic to Viti Levu)
51
Endemic
21
Fantail Cuckoo
Endemic (subspecies)
13
Fiji bush Warbler
Endemic
208
Blued crested Broadbill
Collared Lory
Fiji Goshawk
Cites Appendix II
Endemic (subspecies endemic to Viti Levu)
7
Fiji Parrotfinch
Endemic
31
Fiji Woodswallow
Endemic
9
Giant forest Honeyeater
Endemic
125
Golden Dove
Endemic
51
Golden Whistler
Endemic (subspecies)
36
Native
7
Island Thrush
Endemic (subspecies)
52
Lesser Shrikebill
Endemic (subspecies)
23
Endemic (subspecies endemic to Viti Levu)
16
Many-coloured fruit Dove
Native
5
Orange breasted Myzomela
Endemic
87
Pacific black Duck
Native
3
Friendly ground Dove
Long-legged Warbler
Cites Appendix II
VU
EN
Pacific Harrier
Cites Appendix II
Native
4
Pink-billed Parrotfinch
VU
Endemic to Viti Levu
4
Polynesian Starling
Endemic (subspecies)
5
Polynesian Triller
Endemic (subspecies endemic to Viti Levu)
76
Introduced
16
Scarlet Robin
Endemic (subspecies)
33
Silvereye
Native
33
Slaty Monarch
Endemic
28
Streaked Fantail
Endemic (subspecies)
52
Yellow-breasted musk parrot
Endemic to Viti Levu
56
Vanikoro Broadbill
Endemic (subspecies)
39
Wattled Honeyeater
Native
77
White-collared Kingfisher
Endemic (subspecies)
5
White-rumped Swiftlet
Native
12
Red vented Bulbul
(exotic, invasive)
128
Common name
Status
Distribution
Abundance
(#/ km²)
White-throated Pigeon
Endemic (subspecies)
1
Fiji White-eye
Endemic
251
Samoan flying fox
Cites Appendix I
Endemic (subspecies)
15
Pacific flying fox
Cites Appendix I
Native
2
Species likely to be present, but not recorded
Eastern Reef heron
Native
Peregrine falcon
AR
Native
Red throated Lorikeet
CR
Endemic
Barn Owl
Native
IUCN Red List: CR=Critically endangered; VU=Vulnerable; EN=Endangered.
Fiji threat status: AR, at risk
129
Appendix 8. Location of point count stations, habitat and birds recorded
Station Longitude
Latitude
1
177.93285
17.94032
No. of
birds
12
No. of
species
6
Vegetation/habitat type
Habitat
secondary lowland forest
riparian
2
177.93155
17.94189
25
12
plantation, garden lowland
slope
3
177.93013
17.94394
3
2
secondary lowland forest
riparian
4
177.9292
17.94554
16
8
plantation, garden lowland
slope
5
177.93074
17.94513
16
7
grassland
slope
6
177.93211
17.94672
16
8
grassland
ridge slope
7
177.93391
17.94539
9
5
secondary lowland forest
ridge top
8
177.93318
17.94334
9
4
secondary lowland forest
ridge top
9
177.93517
17.9404
13
6
plantation, garden lowland
flat
10
177.93736
17.93911
5
4
secondary lowland forest
riparian
11
177.95975
17.94377
12
8
primary lowland forest
flat
12
177.95853
17.94216
16
14
primary lowland forest
steep slope
13
177.9563
17.9416
12
10
primary lowland forest
ridge slope
14
177.94504
17.94159
12
6
primary lowland forest
steep slope
15
177.96205
17.94467
15
9
primary lowland forest
flat
16
177.96169
17.94676
14
10
primary lowland forest
ridge top
17
177.96271
17.94855
11
9
primary lowland forest
steep slope
18
177.98424
17.9673
12
7
primary lowland forest
riparian
19
177.98227
17.96482
14
7
secondary lowland forest
flat
20
177.9807
17.96259
15
9
secondary lowland forest
flat
21
177.97766
17.95999
16
11
secondary lowland forest
flat
22
177.97585
17.95988
9
5
primary lowland forest
steep slope
23
177.97388
17.95921
21
12
primary lowland forest
ridge
24
177.97185
17.9572
9
8
primary lowland forest
ridge
25
177.96951
17.95697
17
10
primary lowland forest
ridge top
26
177.96312
17.94414
14
8
primary lowland forest
steep slope
27
177.96538
17.94351
17
8
primary lowland forest
ridge
28
177.96793
17.94335
25
14
primary lowland forest
ridge
29
177.96785
17.94516
10
8
primary lowland forest
ridge slope
30
177.96999
17.94598
10
8
primary lowland forest
riparian
31
177.97156
17.94579
13
7
primary lowland forest
riparian
32
177.95189
17.94689
10
8
secondary lowland forest
riparian
33
177.95375
17.94677
3
2
primary lowland forest
slope
34
177.95584
17.94637
11
5
primary lowland forest
steep slope
130
Station Longitude
Latitude
35
177.9646
17.94497
No. of
birds
21
No. of
species
10
Vegetation/habitat type
Habitat
primary lowland forest
flat
36
177.96185
17.94283
24
11
primary lowland forest
steep slope
37
177.96382
17.95281
23
13
primary lowland forest
ridge
38
177.97212
17.96587
7
5
primary lowland forest
riparian
39
177.97183
17.96945
11
9
secondary lowland forest
riparian
40
177.97214
17.97586
4
3
primary lowland forest
slope
41
177.97133
17.97986
13
8
primary lowland forest
flat
42
177.97057
17.99098
20
8
primary lowland forest
slope
43
177.97188
17.99266
12
8
primary lowland forest
ridge slope
44
177.9725
17.99568
15
10
primary lowland forest
ridge
45
177.97156
17.97309
6
4
primary lowland forest
slope
46
177.97331
17.99778
21
12
primary lowland forest
ridge slope
47
177.97435
17.00055
24
11
primary lowland forest
ridge
48
177.9769
17.00301
22
14
primary lowland forest
ridge
49
177.95966
17.99751
7
5
primary lowland forest
riparian
50
177.95729
17.99587
8
5
primary lowland forest
slope
51
177.95514
17.99372
8
6
primary lowland forest
slope
52
177.95357
17.99063
4
2
primary lowland forest
ridge
53
177.9523
17.98797
2
2
primary upland forest
ridge
54
177.94458
17.97956
12
8
primary cloud forest
ridge slope
55
177.9429
17.97705
8
8
primary upland forest
slope
56
177.94034
17.97512
7
6
primary lowland forest
slope
57
177.93669
17.97383
7
6
primary lowland forest
ridge
58
177.93285
17.97309
17
10
primary lowland forest
slope
59
177.92996
17.97395
18
12
secondary lowland forest
ridge slope
60
177.99716
17.97207
7
7
primary cloud forest
ridge
61
178.00037
17.96806
5
5
primary cloud forest
ridge
62
178.0006
17.96531
5
7
primary cloud forest
ridge top
63
177.99872
17.9638
8
5
primary cloud forest
ridge slope
64
177.99286
17.99286
6
5
primary upland forest
ridge
65
177.99152
17.95473
12
8
primary upland forest
riparian
66
177.99185
17.95199
5
6
primary upland forest
riparian
67
177.9931
17.95256
15
12
primary upland forest
flat
68
177.99527
17.9504
11
5
primary upland forest
slope
69
177.99924
17.9506
4
14
primary upland forest
ridge flat
70
178.00458
17.95373
7
11
primary cloud forest
ridge
71
178.00958
17.95391
7
4
secondary cloud forest
ridge top
131
Station Longitude
Latitude
72
178.00525
17.94992
No. of
birds
12
No. of
species
6
Vegetation/habitat type
Habitat
primary cloud forest
ridge
73
178.0036
17.94737
10
6
primary cloud forest
slope
74
177.99036
17.94921
9
12
primary cloud forest
ridge top
75
177.99072
17.95205
8
10
primary upland forest
ridge
76
177.98587
17.9674
6
11
primary upland forest
slope
77
177.98634
17.96457
10
9
primary upland forest
ridge
78
177.98796
17.96216
7
7
primary upland forest
ridge
79
177.98918
17.95978
8
12
primary upland forest
riparian
80
177.98709
17.96027
11
7
primary upland forest
slope
81
177.98814
17.96805
5
8
primary upland forest
ridge
82
177.99052
17.96877
9
12
primary upland forest
ridge
83
177.99176
17.9706
12
9
primary upland forest
ridge slope
84
177.99113
17.97244
5
13
primary upland forest
slope
85
177.98918
17.97278
7
6
primary upland forest
slope
86
177.98708
17.97298
4
7
primary lowland forest
riparian
87
177.98601
17.97147
7
5
primary lowland forest
slope
88
177.98538
17.96977
5
6
primary lowland forest
slope
89
177.99361
17.9715
8
8
primary upland forest
ridge
90
177.99567
17.97143
7
13
primary cloud forest
ridge
91
177.99887
17.97315
5
7
primary upland forest
ridge
92
178.00041
17.97448
7
8
primary cloud forest
ridge
93
178.00175
17.97624
8
9
primary upland forest
ridge
94
178.00314
17.97803
4
5
primary lowland forest
ridge top
95
178.00414
17.98059
7
7
primary lowland forest
slope
96
178.00781
17.98191
6
7
primary lowland forest
slope
97* 177.91397
17.96840
>1000 individuals
Secondary lowland forest
Slope
* Location of Pteropus tonganus roost
132
Appendix 9. Focal avifauna species recorded within Emalu
Common name
Abundance
(#/km²)
Scientific name
Status
Black-face Shrikebill
Clytorhynchus nigrogularis
VU
5
Collared Lory
Phigys solitarius simus
CITES Appendix II
21
Fiji Goshawk
Accipiter rufitorques
CITES Appendix II
7
Friendly ground Dove
Gallicolumba stairi
VU
7
Long-legged Warbler
Trichocichla rufa rufa
EN
16
Pacific Harrier
Circus approximans
CITES Appendix II
4
Pink-billed Parrotfinch
Erythrura kleinschmidti
VU
4
Red-vented Bulbul
Pycnotus cafer
Invasive*
16
Pteropus samoensis
NT, CITES Appendix I
15
Land birds
Bats
Samoan flying fox
Tongan flying fox
Pteropus tonganus
CITES Appendix I
2
IUCN Red List: NT=Near Threatened; VU=Vulnerable; EN=Endangered.
*Exotic invasive, restricted to grassland and open secondary forest habitats
133
Appendix 10.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Tovatova catchment
134
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Family
Scientific name
Coleoptera
Anthribidae
Cerambycidae
Chrysomelidae
Corylophidae
Curculionidae
Elateridae
Endomychidae
Eucnemidae
Languriidae
Mordellidae
Nitidulidae
Passalidae
Platypodidae
Propalticidae
Pselaphidae
Salpingidae
Scarabaeidae
Scolytidae
Staphylinidae
Tenebrionidae
Zopheridae
Diptera
Drosophilidae
Others
Hymenoptera
Formicidae
Ichneumonidae
Hemiptera
Cicadidae
Others
Light Traps
1
1
3
3
1
1
13
5
21
4
2
7
11
-
Leaf Litter
18
7
20
83
2
6
4
2
5
23
4
46
37
14
139
-
Pitfall Traps
4
7
13
26
2
11
4
1
3
50
28
5
1
8
2
Active search
-
Opportunistic
1
-
135
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Family
Scientific name
Dermaptera
Isoptera
Termitidae
Tricoptera
Lepidoptera
Lymantridae
Calliteara fidjiensis *
Noctuidae
Dysgonia koroensis
Pallaeocoleus sypnoides
Stictoptera vitiensis
Speiredonia mutabilis
Ericeia inangulata
Tricola plagiata
Bocana manifestalis
Geometridae Cleora perstricta
Cleora fowlesi
Cleora sp
Thallasodes liquenscens
Limacodidae
Beggina sp*
Pyralidae
Stemorrhages oceanitis
Palpita sp
Conogethes punctiferalis
Botyodes asialis
Lipararchis hyacinthopa
Lepidoptera
Nymphalidae Hypolimnas inopinata **
Hypolimnas bolina
Tirumala hamata
Melanitis leda
Euploea boisduvalli
Hesperiidae
Oriens augustula
Papilionidae
Papilio schmeltzi *
Satyridae
Xois sesara *
Light Traps
1
13
4
16
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
7
8
6
2
5
1
6
1
-
Leaf Litter
-
Pitfall Traps
-
Active search
5
1
3
2
4
1
1
8
Opportunistic
3
1
-
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Family
Scientific name
Orthorptera
Gryllacrididae
Gryllidae
Odonata
Nesobasis spp. **
Phasmida
Phasmatidae Nysirus spinulosus **
Cotylosoma dipneusticum**
Arachnidae
Opiliones
Acari
Scorpions
Liochelidae
Light Traps
18
-
Leaf Litter
10
16
46
1
Pitfall Traps
1
5
1
-
Active search
-
Opportunistic
2
19
2
1
1
1
136
Appendix 11.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Waikarakarawa catchment
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Coleoptera
137
Family
Anobidae
Anthribidae
Brentidae
Carabidae
Cantharidae
Curculionidae
Chrysomelidae
Elateridae
Eucnemidae
Lathrididae
Nitidulidae
Passalidae
Platypodidae
Pselaphidae
Scolytidae
Staphylinidae
Tenebrionidae
Scientific name
Leaf Litter
22
8
1 km transect Active search Opportunistic
1
2
2
64
8
1
1
72
39
1
3
1
Blattodea
Diptera
Hemiptera
Hymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Light Traps
49
296
100
2
1
1
19
Cicadidae
Formicidae
Lymantridae
Geometridae
7
2
259
Calliteara fidjiensis*
Cleora diversa
Cleora ochricolis
Agathia pisina
7
8
1
2
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Family
Noctuidae
Pyralidae
Torticidae
Nymphalidae
138
Odonata
Agrionidae
Scientific name
Pyrrhorachis pyrrhogona
Petelia aesyla
Thallasodes figurata
Mecodina variata
Sarbissa bostrychonota
Palpita vitiensis
Cyadalima laticostalis
Botyodes asialis
Bradina chalcophea
Liparachis hyacinthopa
Stemorrhages oceantis
Light Traps
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
Leaf Litter
8
7
3
1
4
35
5
Euploea boisduvalii
Hypolimnas inopinata**
Hypolimnas bolina
Tirumala hamata
Nesobasis erythrops**
Nesobasis angolicollis**
Nesobasis heteroneura**
Orthoptera
Gryllacrididae
Gryllidae
Tettigonidae
Raphidophoridae
Phasmatodea
Phasmatidae Cotylosoma dipneusticum**
Nisyrus spinulosus**
Acari
Araneae
1 km transect Active search Opportunistic
49
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
55
1
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Scorpiones
Family
Scientific name
Light Traps
Leaf Litter
4
3
Liocheles australasiae
Opiliones
1 km transect Active search Opportunistic
36
139
Appendix 12.
Species checklist of insects and arachnids in the Mavuvu catchment
Key: * = known endemics ** = endemic and focal species.
Order
Coleoptera
Family
Anthribidae
Curculionidae
Chrysomelidae
Lathrididae
Nitidulidae
Pselaphidae
Scolytidae
Staphylinidae
Formicidae
Nymphalidae
Odonata
Agrionidae
140
Hemiptera
Hymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Acari
Araneae
Opiliones
Scientific name
Light Traps
Leaf Litter
5
46
3
4
10
17
38
15
2
27
1km transect
8
2
4
1
34
58
27
Hypolimnas inopinata**
Tirumala hamata
Euploea boisduvalii
Melanitis leda
Nesobasis erythrops**
Nesobasis angolicollis**
Nesobasis heteroneura**
1
18
10
2
Active search
Opportunistic
Appendix 13.
Species checklist of freshwater fish in the upper Sigatoka River tributaries
141
Site
Date
Coordinates
Method of collection
Species
Abundance
Nakoro, Navitilevu and Draubuta
villages
18/07/2012
not recorded
Anecdotal (village
interviews)
NU1: Nasa upstream 1
19/07/2012
17.94593,177.96658
Visual observation
Anguilla marmorata
Anguilla megastoma
Kuhlia rupestris
Kuhlia marginata*
Oreochromis niloticus*
Eleotris fusca*
Lamnostoma kampeni*
Awaous guamensis*
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
Sicyopus zosterophorum
Nasa stream
Upstream from basecamp
20/07/2012
not recorded
Opportunistic collection
(spear)
Anguilla marmorata
Anguilla megastoma
7
2
NU2: Nasa upstream 2
22/07/2012
17.94495,177.4431
Beach seine
WL: Wainirovurovu lower
23/07/2012
17.94431,177.96056
Beach seine
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
Sicyopus zosterophorum
Anguilla marmorata
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
6
2
1
2
WU: Wainirovurovu upper (above
waterfall)
23/07/2012
17.94195,177.95972
Beach seine
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
Anguilla marmorata
9
1
Wainirovurovu stream
24/07/2012
not recorded
Opportunistic collection
(poison)
Anguilla marmorata
Anguilla megastoma
39
16
Tributary to Nasa stream,
downstream from Navitilevu
26/07/2012
17.95611,177.90222
Visual observation
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
N/A
N/A
Site
Date
Coordinates
Method of collection
Species
WK1: Waikarakarawa stream
upstream from base camp
20/03/2013
17.98003,178.01088
Visual observation
N/A
MV1: Upper Mavuvu upstream from
base camp
22/03/2013
17.95007,177.99333
Visual observation
Sicyopus zosterophorum
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
Anguilla marmorata
Awaous guamensis
Sicyopterus lagocephalus
Anguilla marmorata
MV2: Lower Mavuvu below waterfall
23/03/2013
17.96912,178.98687
Visual observation
Kuhlia rupestris
11
*presence of the species is yet to be verified by means of thorough fishing methods
Abundance
N/A
142
Appendix 14.
Sampling Stations
Water quality parametres at freshwater fish sampling stations
Date
NS2
Nasa stream upstream
WL
Wainirovurovu lower
WU
Wainirovurovu upper
Waikarakarawa stream
(above base camp)
Mavuvu upper
22/7/2012
Disolved oxygen
(mg/l)
8.95
pH
Temperature (°C)
8.05
Conductivity
(uS)
0.047
TDS
19.7
Salinity
(ppt)
0.02
0.03
Turbidity
(NTU)
5.8
Altitude
(m)
511
23/7/2012
8.86
7.37
0.084
19.6
0.04
0.053
0
507
23/7/2012
8.77
8.05
0.081
20.2
0.04
0.052
0
556
20/3/2013
8.27
6.88
0.077
21.9
0.03
0.049
0
404
22/3/2013
8.36
6.84
0.066
21.1
0.03
0.042
0
550
Mavuvu mid
23/3/2013
8.60
7.01
0.091
21.4
0.04
0.057
0
459
143
Appendix 15.
Catchment,
Sampling dates
Tovatova catchment,
July 2012
Location and descriptions of macroinvertebrate sampling stations
River/stream
Station
Code
NU1QT
Location coordinates
Description
Survey type
17. 94477,177.96318
Upstream
Quantitative
NU1QL
17.94685,177.965850
Upstream
Qualitative
WRD2QT
17.94431,177.96056
Downstream
Quantitative
WRU3QT
17.941041,177.960060
Upstream-above waterfall
Quantitative
WRU3QL
17.942233,177.959156
Upstream-above waterfall
Qualitative
NWCQL
17.94476,177.96075
Confluence
Qualitative
Waikarakarawa catchment, Waikarakarawa stream
March 2013
WKQT
17.981617,178.009133
650m from 1st campsite
Quantitative
WKQL
17.979282,178.005956
600m from 1st campsite
Qualitative
Mavuvu catchment,
March 2013
QB1QL
17.948117,177.995467
Upstream
Qualitative
QB2QL
17.951911,177.991813
200m from 2nd campsite
Qualitative
QB3QL
17.955224,177.990614
Downstream from campsite
Qualitative
WSLQT
17.968750,177.984850
WSLQL
17.968750,177.984850
Nasa Creek
Wainirovurovu Stream (tributary)
Nasa-Wainirovurovu Confluence
144
Qalibovitu stream
(Upper Mavuvu)
Wainasoba stream
(Mid Mavuvu)
Quantitative
Tributary of Mid Mavuvu River
Qualitative
The four/five letter site codes are composed from the initials of the stream/creek, the station and the type of sampling, for example QB1QL indicates a station
sampled in Qalibovitu stream (QB) at station 1 using Qualitative (QL) sampling technique.
Appendix 16.
stations
Physiochemical parameters of macroinvertebrate sampling
Station
code
Temperature
(oC)
pH
Conductivity
(mS/cm)
TDS
(g/l)
NU1QT
19.7
8.05
0.047
0.030
5.8
8.95
0.02
WRD2QT
19.6
7.37
0.084
0.053
0
8.86
0.04
WRU3QT
20.2
8.05
0.081
0.052
0
8.77
0.04
WKQT
21.9
6.88
0.077
0.049
0
8.27
0.03
WSLQT
21.8
6.94
0.085
0.055
0
8.41
0.04
QB1QL
21.2
6.56
0.065
0.041
0
8.31
0.03
145
Turbidity Dissolved Salinity
(NTU) O2 (g/m3)
(ppt)
Appendix 17.
Habitat and riparian characteristics of macroinvertebrate sampling stations
Station
Channel characteristics
Width
Depth Velocity Pool
(m)
(m)
(m/s)
(%)
Habitat type
Run
Riffle
(%)
(%)
NU1QT
3-5.6
0.22-2.4
0.30
5
70
20
5
-
10
<1
native trees and well vegetated, gravel,
shrubs, 60%
sandy & highly stable
WRD2QT
2-5
0.14-0.8
0.40
20
20
10
40
-
10
-
native trees and well vegetated, stony,
shrubs, 95%
sandy & highly stable
WRU3QT
2.5-4
0.1-1.5
0.50
20
40
20
20
<1
40
<1
native trees and well vegetated, stony &
shrubs, 20%
highly stable
WKQT
4-6
0.10-1
0.32
20
30
30
20
<1
20
-
well vegetated,
native trees and
rootmass, gravel, sandy
shrubs, 60%
& highly stable
WSLQT
1.2-8
0.10-0.85
0.35
10
50
20
20
-
30
-
native trees and well vegetated, stony &
shrubs, 90%
highly stable
<1
Native trees and
native trees and shrubs, well vegetated,
shrubs, 90%
stony, rootmass &
highly stable
Chute
(%)
Organic matter
Riparian
characteristics,
Logs Leaves Branches
% shade
(%)
(%)
(%)
146
QB1QL
1.5-3
0.23-0.82
0.8
5
20
70
5
<1
30
Bank
characteristics
Appendix 18.
Abundance of freshwater macroinvertebrates collected with Surber sampling
Key to abundance categories:
Group
■very abundant (>100), ■abundant (20-99), ■common (5-19), ■few (2-4), ■very few (1)
Order/class/family
Taxa
Distribution
Common name
Station
NU1QT
Insecta
Ephemeroptera
Trichoptera
147
Lepidoptera
Diptera
Cloeon sp.
Pseudocloeon sp.
Cloeodes sp.
Abacaria fijiana
Abacaria ruficeps
Anisocentropus fijianus
Goera fijiana
Hydrobiosis spp.
Odontoceridae spp.
Chimarra sp.
Rhyacophilidae spp.
Hydroptilidae sp.
Nymphula sp.
Unknown species
Chironomus sp.
Chironominae sp. A
Chironominae sp. B
Tanypodinae sp.
Culicidae sp.
Dixidae sp.
Psychodidae sp.
Simulium jolli
Simulium sp. B
Tipula sp.
Tipulidae sp. B
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Introduced,tropics
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Moth
Midge
Midge
Midge
Midge
Mosquitoes
Dixid midges
Moth Fly
Black fly
Black fly
Crane fly
Crane fly
27
1050
17
700
67
10
30
73
167
348
88
30
23
333
17
10
17
20
443
10
33
-
WRD2QT WRU3QT WKQT
23
390
1163
93
3
33
57
30
153
20
17
300
10
7
3
20
13
3
390
27
-
7
433
17
1177
210
3
70
13
22
43
40
217
347
3
130
3
40
57
7
7
3
3
6
1413
87
23
80
77
20
53
67
167
13
3
MVLQT
7
500
1367
103
7
100
383
220
97
40
100
7
57
10
-
Key to abundance categories:
Group
■very abundant (>100), ■abundant (20-99), ■common (5-19), ■few (2-4), ■very few (1)
Order/class/family
Taxa
Distribution
Common name
Station
NU1QT
Odonata
Hemiptera
Coleoptera
148
Orthoptera
Arachnida Araneae
Annelida Oligochaeta
Nereidae
Nematoda
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Total abundance
Number of taxa
Empididae sp.
Muscidae sp.
Nesobasis sp. A
Vellidae sp.
Hydraenidae sp.
Ptilodactylidae sp.
Dytiscidae sp.
Scirtidae sp.
Hydrophilidae sp.
Dineutus sp.
Nemobiinae sp.
Species 1
Oligochaeta spp.
Nereid sp.
Species 1
Species 2
Fluviopupa spp.
Melanoides tuberculata
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Native (Pacific)
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Unknown
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Introduced, tropics
Lacewing fly
Damselfly
Water bug
feather-winged beetles
diving beetles
marsh beetles
water scavenger beetles
Whirligig beetles
Water cricket
Water spider
Worm
Snail
Snail
20
3
20
7
17
3
3
97
3
3686
30
WRD2QT WRU3QT WKQT
10
7
3
3
3
10
7
3
2801
28
27
3
7
3
10
7
7
23
2939
30
7
7
13
13
2049
16
MVLQT
3
3
3
1
7
177
3192
20
Appendix 19.
Abundance of freshwater macroinvertebrates collected opportunistically
Taxa
149
Cloeon sp. A
Cloeon sp. B
Pseudocloeon sp. A
Pseudocloeon sp. B
Pseudocloeon sp. C
Pseudocloeon sp. D
Pseudocloeon spp.
Apsilochorema sp. 1 (“greenish”)
Apsilochorema sp. 2 (“pinkish”)
Hydrobiosis sp. 1 (“green”)
Hydrobiosis sp. 2 (“pinkish”)
Anisocentropus fijianus
Odontoceridae spp.
Abacaria fijiana
Abacaria ruficeps
Chimarra sp.
Oxyethira sp.
Goera fijiana
Trianodes fijiana
Nymphula sp.
Nesobasis sp. 1 (“dark green”)
Nesobasis sp. 2 (“orangish”)
Nesobasis sp. 3 (“light brown”)
Nesobasis sp. 4 (“dark brown”)
End./Nat./Intr.
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native.
Endemic/Native
Stations
Common name
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Mayfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Caddisfly
Moth
Damselfly
Damselfly
Damselfly
Damselfly
NU1QL
WRUQL3
NWCQL
WKQL
MVLQL
QBUQL1
2
5
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
12
20
100
38
4
4
5
28
25
19
6
1
-
2
20
30
60
46
3
2
1
14
128
3
1
10
-
3
36
22
242
2
5
41
24
2
3
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
-
3
3
4
2
-
QBUQL2 QBUQL3
9
2
2
24
1
20
10
-
Taxa
150
Hemicordulia sp.
Procordulia sp.
Tipula sp.
Tipulidae sp. B
Simulium jolli
Empididae sp.
Chironomus sp.
Corixidae sp.
Lymnogonus sp.
Hydraenidae sp.
Dineutus sp.
Unknown species
Unknown species
Macrobrachium latimanus
Macrobrachium lar
Caridina sp. A
Caridina sp. B
Caridina sp. C
Caridina sp. D
Caridina sp. E
Caridina sp. F
Antecaridina sp.
Atyoida pilipes
Unknown species
Fluviopupa sp.
End./Nat./Intr.
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Native (Pacific)
Endemic/Native
Endemic/Native
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Native (Indo-Pacific)
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Native (Indo-Pacific)
unknown
Endemic/Native
Stations
Common name
Dragonfly
Dragonfly
Cranefly
Cranefly
Blackfly
Dagger fly
Midge
Water bug
Water-strider
Featherwinged beetle
Whirligig beetle
Beetle
Diving beetle
Prawn
Prawn
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Amphipod
Snail
NU1QL
WRUQL3
NWCQL
WKQL
MVLQL
QBUQL1
1
1
1
31
1
2
-
1
1
-
2
1
15
1
34
3
2
1
3
1
32
4
2
1
48
3
1
2
4
1
2
4
2
101
13
1
5
4
1
145
QBUQL2 QBUQL3
4
1
3
1
41
2
3
1
1
1
80
25
Taxa
Melanoides tuberculata
Physastra nasuta
Oligochaeta sp.
Tricladida sp.
Total abundance
Number of taxa
End./Nat./Intr.
Introduced
Native (Pacific)
Native (Indo-Pacific)
Endemic/Native
Stations
Common name
Snail
Snail
Freshwater worm
Flatworm
NU1QL
WRUQL3
NWCQL
WKQL
MVLQL
QBUQL1
41
6
14
13
6
4
2
1
358
24
1
1
402
27
4
2
5
659
21
QBUQL2 QBUQL3
206
18
25
1
151
Appendix 20.
Checklist of invasive and potentially invasive animals
Scientific Name
Common Name, Fijian Name
Abundance
Mus musculus*
House mouse, kucuve, kalavo
Uncommon
Rattus exulans*
Pacific rat, kucuve, kalavo
Uncommon
Rattus rattus
Black rat, ship rat, kucuve, kalavo
Rare
Rattus norvegicus*
Norway rat, kucuve, kalavo
Uncommon
Felis catus
Feral cat, vusi, pusi
Rare
Sus scrofa
Feral pig, vuaka, vore
Common
Bufo marinus
Cane toad, boto
Common
Herpestes fuscus**
Indian brown mongoose, manivusi
Rare
Herpestes auropunctatus**
Small Indian mongoose, manivusi
Locally common
Pycnonotus cafer
Bulbul, ulurua
Uncommon
Equus caballus
Horse, ohe, ose
Common
* Not directly observed but anecdotal evidence strongly indicates presence in village
** Presence of mongooses is confirmed but not which of the two possible species
152
Appendix 21.
Transect
Locations of rodent transects in Tovatova catchment
Number of Trap
traps
nights
Location
Transect coordinates
1
34 traps
(17 pairs)
1
From Tovatova base camp
towards the ridge
Start: -17.943719°, 177.961474°
End: -17.943656°, 177.959597°
2
30 traps
(15 pairs)
1
Uphill track from Tovatova
base camp to Mavuvu Creek
Start: -17.943632°, 177.961495°
End: -17.944801°, 177.962060°
3
24 traps
(12 pairs)
1
In and around the Tovatova
base camp
Start: -17.943683°, 177.961511°
End: -17.943366°, 177.962837°
Appendix 22.
Record of pigs (Sus scrofa) caught
Date
Gender and age
11/07/2012
Juvenile male
12/07/2012
Juvenile male
14/07/2012
Large pregnant female
15/07/2012
undetermined *
20/07/2012
Juvenile male
20/07/2012
undetermined *
* Eaten by dogs before determination could be made of gender and age
153
Appendix 23.
Checklist of invasive and potentially invasive plants
154
Family
Scientific Name
Common name, (Fijian)
Habitat
Abundance
1. Agavaceae
Dracaena fragrans
Vasili ni vavalagi
Found in secondary forest
Rare
2. Asteraceae
Crassocephalum crepidioides
thick head
Observed in abandoned plantations.
Uncommon
3. Asteraceae
Mikania micrantha
mile-a-minute, wabosucu
Abandoned farms.
Uncommon
4. Asteraceae
Tridax procumbens
coat buttons, tabu keka
Uncommon
5. Bignoniaceae
Spathodea campanulata
African tulip, pasi
Can be seen growing on village green in Navitilevu and Nakoro
Village and also on abandoned plantations.
Two trees in the Nasa catchment, one in Waikarakarawa
6. Malvaceae
Sida rhombifolia
Broomweed
Uncommon
7. Myrtaceae
Psidium guajava
guava, quawa
Common around horse tracks, grazing areas, former plantation
areas.
Commonly found in paddocks.
8. Fabaceae
Derris malaccensis
Derris, duva, tuva
Very common near streams smothering the vegetation.
Common
9. Fabaceae
Samanea saman
Leucaena leucocephala
Large stands can be seen growing along the river from Nakoro
to Navitilevu village
Observed along grazing areas and paddocks.
Common
10. Fabaceae
rain tree, monkeypod,
Vaivai ni valagi
vaivai ni vavalgi
11. Lamiaceae
Hyptis pectinata
tamoli ni vavalagi
Found in abandoned plantations and along creek-bed.
Uncommon
12. Lythraceae
Cuphea carthagenensis
tar weed
Observed along main track.
Uncommon
13. Melastomataceae
Clidemia hirta
Common through all forest types visited
14. Melastomataceae
Dissotis rotundifolia
Koster’s curse, karausiga,
vuti
pink lady
Very
common
Common
Stream banks in disturbed areas
Rare
Common
Common
Family
Scientific Name
Common name, (Fijian)
Habitat
Abundance
15. Poaceae
Arundo donax
Giant reed, gasau ni valagi Along creeks and streams
Uncommon
16. Poaceae
Bambusa vulgaris
bitu ni vavalagi
Rare
17. Poaceae
Imperata cylindrica
18. Poaceae
Pennisetum polystachyon
19. Piperaceae
Piper aduncum
mission grass, co
manivusi
Yaqoyaqona
20. Solanaceae
Brugmansia sp.
21. Verbenaceae
155
Open areas and in grassland
Uncommon
Dominant species in grasslands.
Common
Common
Angel’s trumpet
Large monotypic stand found along the boundary of Emalu
Forest and within disturbed areas within the Emalu Forest.
Found along creeks and streams.
Lantana camara
lantana, lanitana
Observed near grazing areas.
Uncommon
22. Solanaceae
Solanum torvum
Kosipeli
Uncommon
23. Zingiberaceae
Alpinia purpurata
Boia
Favourite food for pigeons, found in abandoned plantations and
fallow areas.
Along creeks
24. Zingiberaceae
Curcuma longa
tumeric, cago
Grassland and abandoned plantations.
Common
25. Zingiberaceae
Hedychium coronarium
White ginger, jija
Along creeks and streams bank.
Uncommon
26. Zingiberaceae
Zingiber zerumbet
Lalaya
Locally common on some ridge-top
Uncommon
Common
Uncommon
Appendix 24.
Summary descriptions and locations of cultural heritage sites
Note: Lowland and upland vegetation zones refer to those below and above 650m, respectively.
Site Code Site type
Site evidence
156
M28-0001
M28-0002
M28-0003
M28-0004
M28-0005
M28-0006
M28-0007
M28-0008
M28-0009
M28-0010
M28-0011
M28-0012
M28-0013
M28-0014
M28-0015
M28-0016
M28-0017
M28-0018
M28-0019
M28-0020
M28-0021
M28-0022
M28-0023
M28-0024
M28-0025
M28-0026
M28-0027
M28-0028
Old village site
Traditional land boundary
Sacred Pool
House mound
House mound
Ditch
Agricultural terrace
Old village site
Old village site
Old village site
Hill fortification
Old village site
Agricultural terrace
Old village site
Agricultural terrace
Sacred Pool
Hill fortification
Hill fortification
Old village site
Old village site
Pottery site
Old village site
Hill fortification
Old village site
Old village site
Old village site
Hill fortification
House mound
House mounds
Rock feature
Pool
Highly raised mound
House mound
Causeway, ditch feature
Terrace platforms, pottery sherds
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mounds, terrace platforms, pottery sherds
House mounds, terrace platforms
House mounds, pottery sherds, metallic pot
Terrace platforms
House mounds, pottery sherds
Terrace platforms
Natural pool (Tobu ni Nanai)
Causeway, defensive ditch, house mound
House mound, defensive ditch
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mound, pottery sherds, terrace platforms
Pottery sherds
Pottery sherds
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mounds, terrace platforms
Terrace platform, pottery sherds, stone alignment feature
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mounds, pottery sherds
House mound
Vegetation
zone
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Upland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Lowland
Site coordinates
17.955722, 177.913025
17.95156, 177.927147
17.951434, 177.927296
17.946785, 177.925627
17.947028, 177.932636
17.945145, 177.933914
17.94184, 177.94267
17.94132, 177.94766
17.94554, 177.953848
17.953684, 177.947787
17.953714, 177.948715
17.957585, 177.94673
17.943933, 177.960069
17.943989, 177.961356
17.945014, 177.959152
17.945415, 177.959916
17.956124, 177.96347
17.957459, 177.966507
17.945685, 177.964307
17.943541, 177.96696
17.941519, 177.968532
17.942736, 177.96926
17.956789, 177.971649
17.942156, 177.972743
17.941205, 177.973868
17.942908, 177.959728
17.936667, 177.970696
17.94112, 177.957129
Date
recorded
24/07/12
25/07/12
25/07/12
18/07/12
18/07/12
18/07/12
18/07/12
19/07/12
21/07/12
21/07/12
21/07/12
21/07/12
19/07/12
18/07/12
21/07/12
21/07/12
20/07/12
20/07/12
22/07/12
22/07/12
22/07/12
22/07/12
20/07/12
23/07/12
23/07/12
19/07/12
22/07/12
19/07/12
Note: Lowland and upland vegetation zones refer to those below and above 650m, respectively.
Site Code Site type
Site evidence
157
M28-0029
M28-0030
M28-0031
M28-0032
M28-0033
M28-0034
M28-0035
M28-0036
M28-0037
M28-0038
M28-0039
M28-0040
M28-0041
M28-0042
M28-0043
M28-0044
M28-0045
M28-0046
M28-0047
M28-0048
M28-0049
M28-0050
M28-0051
M28-0052
M28-0053
M28-0054
M28-0055
M28-0056
M28-0057
M28-0058
Ditch
Platform
Platform
Ditch
House mound
House mound
House mound
House mound
Platform
Platform
House mound
House mound
Agricultural terrace
House mound
Platform
House mound
Agricultural terrace
Hill fortification
Agricultural terrace
Platform
House mound
Stone alignment
House mound
Hill fortification
House mound
House mound
Old village site
Habitational terrace
House mound
House mound
Raised flat platform
Flat terrace
Flat terrace
Trench
House foundation, fire place, indicator plants
House foundation
House foundation
Flat terrace,stone alignment,house foundations
Flat terrace
Flat terrace, house foundation
House foundation
House foundation
Series of terraces
House foundation
Raised flat
House foundation, indicator plants and trees
Series of terraces
Circular ditches, causeways
Series of terraces
Raised flat
House foundation, indictor plant
Stone wall
House foundation
Platform, trench, causeways, indicator plants
House foundation, stone alignment
House foundation
House mounds, platforms, indicator plants,
Flat platform
House mound
House foundation
Vegetation
zone
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Upland
Upland
Upland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Site coordinates
17.9880039,178.008375
17.989214, 178.005662
17.989222, 178.004928
17.990073, 178.003454
17.991264, 178.001543
17.991658, 178.000810
17.990698, 177.998185
17.988996, 177.995172
17.987994, 177.994121
17.987405, 177.993662
17.980532, 178.003924
17.982715, 178.009278
17.984366, 178.011242
17.982227, 178.006033
17.982030, 178.006467
17.981805, 178.007046
17.982740, 178.011033
17.988327, 177.994194
17.983373, 177.006021
17.982922, 178.005426
17.982736, 178.005193
17.981549, 178.003506
17.982559, 177.991147
17.984130, 177.986690
17.984486, 177.985674
17.984322, 177.986048
17.984255, 177.984087
17.985933, 177.979203
17.986574, 177.971813
17.986849, 177.971249
Date
recorded
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
20/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
Note: Lowland and upland vegetation zones refer to those below and above 650m, respectively.
Site Code Site type
Site evidence
158
M28-0059
M28-0060
M28-0061
M28-0062
M28-0063
M28-0064
M28-0065
M28-0066
M28-0067
M28-0068
M28-0069
M28-0070
M28-0071
M28-0072
M28-0073
M28-0074
M28-0075
M28-0076
M28-0077
Old village site
House mound
House mound
Agricultural terrace
House mound
Agricultural terrace
Old village site
Hill fortification
Habitational platform
Hill fortification
Hill fortification
Hill fortification
Old village site
Hill fortification
House mound
House mound
House mound
House mound
Platform
House foundations, raised stone wall, stone alignment for initiation
House foundation
House foundation
Series of terraces
House foundations,indicator plants
Series of terraces
House foundations, pottery sherds, stone alignment
House foundations, fortification trench, fortification stone wall
Flat terraces,house mounds,indicator plants
Platforms,house mounds,trenches
Stone wall alignment,house foundations, indicator plants, rock shelter
House mounds,fortification trench,stone alignment
House foundations,indicator plants,pottery sherds
Fortification trenches,house foundations,indicator plants, pottery sherds
House foundation,standing stones
House foundations
House foundations
House foundations
Flat terraces,pottery sherds
Vegetation
zone
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Upland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Lowland
Site coordinates
17.997551, 177.962255
17.987036, 177.970733
17.987265, 177.970283
17.988284, 177.968851
17.989261, 177.969247
17.995930, 177.965134
17.985088, 177.975448
17.993331, 177.980870
17.989834, 177.979605
18.001788, 177.964786
17.990722, 177.968911
17.985345, 177.970595
17.975304, 177.977471
17.9698685,177.982617
17.965324, 177.985803
17.963856, 177.986926
17.961816, 177.988338
17.960967, 177.987922
17.973944, 178.004944
Date
recorded
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
21/03/13
22/03/13
22/03/13
22/03/13
23/03/13
23/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
24/03/13
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