Species Proiles for Paciic Island Agroforestry www.traditionaltree.org April 2006 ver. 2.2 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Combretaceae (combretum family) alite (Solomon Islands pidgin); ‘autara‘a, ‘aua, ‘auari‘i, ‘auari‘iroa (Societies); kamani haole, kamani ‘ula, false kamani (Hawai‘i); kauariki, kaukauariki, taraire (Cooks: Mangaia); ma‘i‘i, koa‘i‘i, koua‘i‘i, ta‘ie (Marquesas); natapoa (Vanuatu: Bislama); tropical, beach, or Indian almond (English); talie (Samoa); talise (Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin); tavola, tivi (Fiji); telie (Tonga, ‘Uvea, Futuna, Tokelau, Tuvalu) Lex A. J. homson and Barry Evans photo: C. ElEvitCh IN BRIEF Distribution Naturally widespread in sub­ tropical and tropical zones of Indian and Paciic Oceans and planted extensively throughout the tropics. Size Large tree 25–40 m (82–130 ft) tall. Habitat Subtropical and tropical maritime climates with annual rainfall generally 1000– 3500 mm (40–140 in); elevations below 300–400 m (1000–1300 ft). Vegetation Associated with coastal vegetation, especially strandline communities and beach forests including rocky shores and edges of man­ grove swamps. Soils Adapted to a wide range of lighter tex­ tured soil types. Growth rate Fast in early years, about 2 m/yr (6.6 ft/yr). Main agroforestry uses Soil stabilization, coas­ tal protection. Main products Nuts, timber. Yields Kernel yield is estimated to be about 5 kg (11 lb) per tree per year; timber yields can reach 15–20 m3/ha/yr (215–286 ft3/ac/yr) (estimate). Intercropping Short term crops can be interplanted during the irst 2–3 years after es­ tablishment. Invasive potential Has moderate potential for invasiveness into disturbed seaside habitats. Large tree near shoreline, Apia, Samoa. INTRODUCTION Current distribution Tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) is a large, spreading tree now distributed throughout the tropics in coastal en­ vironments. he tree is tolerant of strong winds, salt spray, and moderately high salinity in the root zone. It grows principally in freely drained, well aerated, sandy soils. Tropical almond has been introduced, and frequently natu­ ralized, in many tropical parts of the world including Brazil, the Caribbean, and East Africa. It is naturalized in Florida and Puerto Rico. In Hawai‘i, the species was introduced very early, probably before 1800, and is now naturalized at low altitudes, mainly near beach shores. he species has traditionally been very important for coastal communities, providing a wide range of non­wood prod­ ucts and services. It has a spreading, ibrous root system and plays a vital role in coastline stabilization. It is widely planted throughout the tropics, especially along sandy sea­ shores, for shade, ornamental purposes, and edible nuts. he timber makes a useful and decorative general­purpose hardwood and is well suited for conversion into furniture and interior building timbers. Fruits are produced from about 3 years of age, and the nutritious, tasty seed kernels may be eaten immediately after extraction. Tropical almond is easily propagated from seed, and is fast growing and lourishes with minimal maintenance in suit­ able environments. Selected cultivars of the species warrant wider commercial planting for joint production of timber and nuts. he tree has a demonstrated potential to natu­ ralize in coastal plant communities, but not to adversely dominate such communities. he productivity and marketing of cultivars with large and/ or soft­shelled nuts needs to be assessed. here is also a need for experimental work to develop vegetative propa­ gation techniques and more eicient techniques for pro­ cessing fully mature fruits including drying, storage, and cracking of nuts. DISTRIBUTION Native range Tropical almond has a vast natural distribution in near­ coastal areas of the Indian Ocean, through tropical Asia, and into the Paciic Ocean. he extent to which its range has been increased through movement and dispersal by humans is diicult to determine. It extends from the Sey­ chelles through India, the Andamans and adjacent islands, and throughout Southeast Asia (Myanmar, hailand, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia) to Papua New Guinea and northern Australia as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. he species is found through­ out the South Paciic region, including the Solomon Is­ lands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. It is present on nearly all the high archipelagos of Polynesia and Micronesia but may be an aboriginal introduction to the eastern parts of its current range (including all of eastern Polynesia).  Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION Preferred scientiic name Terminalia catappa L. Family Combretaceae (combretum family) Non-preferred scientiic names Phytolacca javanica Osbeck Terminalia mauritiana Blanco Terminalia moluccana Lamk. Terminalia procera Roxb. Common names alite (Solomon Islands pidgin) ‘autara‘a, ‘aua, ‘auari‘i, ‘auari‘iroa (Societies) kamani haole, kamani ‘ula, false kamani (Hawai‘i) kauariki, kaukauariki, taraire (Cooks: Mangaia) ma‘i‘i, koa‘i‘i, koua‘i‘i, ta‘ie (Marquesas) natapoa (Vanuatu: Bislama) tropical, beach, or Indian almond (English) talie (Samoa) talise (Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin) tavola, tivi (Fiji) telie (Tonga, ‘Uvea, Futuna, Tokelau, Tuvalu) Size Tropical almond is a medium to large tree to 25–40 m (82–130 ft) in height and with a similar crown spread in open situations. At maturity the trunk attains a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 50–150 cm (20–60 in). Typical form Younger trees display a characteristic pagoda form, with a single bole and monopodial horizontal branching in regu­ lar false whorls of 4–5 branches. Along each lateral, new branches are formed in a characteristic, bifurcating pattern. he tiered crown becomes latter with widespread branches in older specimens. he bole is usually straight and reason­ ably cylindrical, but in exposed coastal situations it may be Top left: Close-up of lowers and buds. photo: l. thomson Right: Fruits on tree. photo: C. ElEvitCh Bottom left: Horizontal branching of young trees. photo: C. ElEvitCh crooked and/or leaning. Buttresses, when present, are up to 3 m (10 ft) in height, variable, straight to curved, thick to thin, sometimes branching. Large trees may develop big, occasionally branching buttresses and often have twisted, leaning trunks. In Hawai‘i, Fiji, Vanuatu, and Tonga lowering and fruiting occur sporadically throughout much of the year. Flowering and fruiting of cultivated trees appears to be more syn­ chronous in Vanuatu, where lowering peaks around Oc­ tober to January and is followed by fruiting around March to June. Flowers he lowers are small (4–6 mm [0.16–0.24 in] across), white or cream­colored, ive­lobed, arranged on long (8–25 cm (3.2–10 in) axillary spikes, with a mildly unpleasant smell. Within a spike the majority of the lowers are male, with only a few bisexual lowers positioned toward the base. Plants usually commence lowering and fruiting from a young age, e.g., within 2–3 years of outplanting, but this varies with site and genotype. On highly fertile sites mature fruits have been collected from 18­month­old plants. Trees may refoliate and lower very soon (e.g., within 6 weeks) after being completely defoliated by cyclonic winds. Leaves he leaves are arranged in close spirals, often crowded to­ ward the ends of the upturned branchlets. he leaf blade is simple, broadly obovate, 8–25(–38) x 5–14(–19) cm (3–10[– 15] x 2–6[–7] in), with (5–)8–12 pairs of secondary veins. he leaf tip is rounded and blunt, gradually tapering to a nar­ rowly subcordate base (the latter being a useful diagnos­ tic feature). New leaves have a covering of soft, appressed, brown hairs. Mature leaves are mostly glabrous (shiny), leathery, and dark green, turning bright yellow then vivid to dark red before falling. he trees are briely deciduous Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 3 during the dry season, or in some environments they may lose their leaves twice in a year. Fruit Typically one to ive fruits develop on the basal part of the lower spike. he fruit is a sessile, laterally compressed, ovoid to ovate, smooth­skinned drupe. During maturation, it changes color from green through yellow to bright red or dark purplish­red at full maturity. Fruit size varies con­ siderably, e.g., 3.5–7 x 2–5.5 cm (1.4–2.8 x 0.8–2.2 in), with extremes in length from 2.5 to 10 cm (1–4 in). he kernel consists of two delicate and intricately entwined cotyle­ dons enclosed in an inconspicuous cream­colored, rarely red, testa. In the South Paciic tropical almond growing at lower latitudes may produce fruit sporadically throughout the year, with heavier crops toward the end of the year on trees growing at higher latitudes. In New Guinea the productive period is between November and March, especially De­ cember–February. In Vanuatu the main crop is around the middle of the year (May–June), with a smaller crop around December. In Samoa fruiting occurs in June–July and Feb­ ruary–March. In Tonga the reported fruiting season varies between island groups, e.g., September–December in the south (Tongatapu and ‘Eua) and February–May further north (Ha‘apai and Vava‘u). Seeds In the Paciic islands trees exhibit large variations in the size and shape of fruits, nuts, and kernels, but it is dii­ cult to classify this variation. For example, in Vanuatu, the nuts can be 3.9–5.1 long by 2.6–3.8 cm across (1.5–2 x 1–1.5 in) and weigh 7–14 g (0.25–0.5 oz). Kernels are in the size range of 2.2–4.4 x 8–1.4 cm (0.9–1.7 x 0.3–0.6 in) and weigh 0.1–0.9 g (0.04–0.32 oz). he percentage kernel content varies from 1% to 10%. he rind of the fruit is a light, pithy, or corky tissue that enables the fruit to loat and be dispersed by sea currents. Trees are also found away from coasts due to fruits being carried inland and dropped by frugivorous birds and bats, and as a result of deliberate planting by humans. Bark he bark is gray to dark gray­brown and shallowly issured. Continuous vertical issuring and discontinuous horizon­ tal cracks produce a grid appearance; the somewhat laky bark peels of in curved or straight scales along these lines. Rooting habit he trees usually have a spreading, ibrous, near­surface 4 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Top: Buttress of large tree, Hilo, Hawai‘i. photo: J. B. Friday Bottom: he extensive surface root system is exposed on this sandy, coastal slope. photo: C. ElEvitCh lateral root system, although the species is nor­ mally deep rooted in sand (Francis 1989). Shal­ low lateral root systems can develop in response to high water tables, making such trees suscep­ tible to windthrow (Wood 1970). Similar or look-a-like species he genus Terminalia comprises about 150–250 tropical tree species. Closely related species in the South Paciic include T. glabrata Forst. f. and T. littoralis Seem. How to distinguish from similar species/look-a-likes Tropical almond is distinguished from most Terminalia spp. by its subcordate (heart­shaped) leaf base. T. catappa has larger, glossy, dark green leaves, thicker branchlets, longer lower spikes, and larger fruits than T. littoralis (typically >3.5– 5 cm [>1.4–2 in] compared with ≤ 2.5 cm [1 in] long). T. catappa is distinguished from the east­ ern Polynesian T. glabrata by its shorter, thicker leaf petioles typically ≤1.5 cm (0.6 in) compared with 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–1 in) long; heart­shaped leaf base compared with cuneate to acute; and winged, typically larger fruits >3.5–5 cm (>1.4–2 in) compared with 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) long and more strongly angled fruits. Some authors con­ sider T. glabrata to be a “wild” form of T. catappa, and more taxonomic studies, including using molecular markers, may be needed to deter­ mine the classiication status of T. glabrata. GENETICS Variability of species Major variation exists in a range of economi­ Top: Comparison of lowering twigs of T. littoralis (left) and T. catappa (right). photo: l. thomson Bottom: T. littoralis, ‘Upolu, Samoa. photo: C. cally important nut characteristics, mainly as a ElEvitCh result of traditional selection for trees with de­ sirable traits and their propagation by peoples endocarp that can easily be broken with the teeth, while in various parts of its range in Melanesia. Selection has the other has a hard endocarp that must be hit with a occurred for large fruits and/or kernels and ease of crack­ stone or cut with a knife to extract the nut; it is uncertain ing. In Vanuatu the variability in the species is high; varia­ whether the soft­shelled trees breed true to type. he is­ tions occur mainly in fruit size, color, and shape (Walter land of Iwa, in the Marshall Bennett Group (PNG), is also and Sam 1993). here is little variation within the species renowned for its soft­shelled nuts. In Tonga two forms are in most parts of the Solomon Islands, except for the Santa distinguished: those with red fruits (telie kula) found along Cruz Islands (Temotu Province) where selection has pro­ beaches and those with light green fruits (telie hina) found duced some large­fruited forms. Two fruit types have been inland. In a Rapid Rural Appraisal study, four folklore va­ reported from the Mussau Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, rieties were identiied for Ha‘apai (Tonga), i.e., ‘amanu, lau Papua New Guinea (Lepofsky 1992). One type has a soft lalahi, lalike, and kai (Tupoulahi­Fusimalohi 1999). In Sa­ Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 5 moa there is modern introduction of T. catappa with larger edible fruits. In India several forms difering in leaf shape and fruit characteristics have been recognized. One type has an ed­ ible, sweet lesh (mesocarp) and is cultivated in gardens. Variation has also been reported in kernel taste and size from planted trees in the Caribbean and the southern United States. Known varieties While many variants are reported (see above), the species is invariably propagated from seed, which gives rise to variation in the ofspring. Accordingly there is continuous variation with intermediate forms for various characters. he species should be highly amenable to improvement through a breeding program given • the high level of variation in nut characteristics • short intergeneration times, i.e., the young age, about 3–4 years, at which plants lower and fruit, and • ready access to lowers in low lateral branches for con­ trolled pollination (although the lowers are small and crowded). ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES Tropical almond is a characteristic species of tropical beach forests, especially raised sandy beaches above high tide. It is also found along rocky shores, and sometimes on the TERMINALIA TERMS • Fruit—the outer skin (exocarp) and lesh (mesocarp), the shell (endocarp), and kernel. • Nut—the shell (endocarp) and the kernel. • Kernel—the edible kernel or seed and testa (skin surrounding testa). edges of mangrove swamps. It may also grow as a pioneer on denuded or disturbed lands up to 300 m (1000 ft) el­ evation. In Vanuatu occasional seemingly wild trees in the forest are likely to be remnants of former settlements or gardens. In French Polynesia, it appears to have partly re­ placed the indigenous T. glabrata. Associated species commonly found in native habitats Associated species include Acacia simplex, beach heliotrope (Tournefortia argentea), Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, beach she­oak (Casuarina equisetifolia), coco­ nut (Cocos nucifera), Cordia subcordata, Excoecaria agallocha, Hernandia nymphaeifolia, beach hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), Intsia bijuga, noni (Morinda citrifolia), Scaevola taccada, Schleinitzia insularum, Terminalia littoralis, hespesia populnea, and Vitex trifoliata. ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES Climate Tropical almond is well adapted to maritime subtropical and tropical climates where rainfall is usually in the range of 1000–3500 mm (40–140 in) per annum, distributed rath­ er uniformly throughout the year or with a summer maxi­ mum. It is invariably found near the coast, at elevations of less than 300–400 m (1000–1300 ft), where there is little seasonal and diurnal variation in temperatures. he entire range is frost­free. Elevation range 1–400 m (3–1310 ft). Mean annual rainfall 1000–3500 (–4500) mm (40–140 [–180] in). Kernels from three selected nut morphotypes of tropical almond (left) compared with wild type (right) in Vanuatu. photo: K. aKEn 6 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Rainfall pattern he tree prefers climates with summer or uniform rainfall patterns. Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40 mm [1.6 in] rainfall) Up to 4–6 months. Fire It is resistant to low­ to medium­intensity ires, with trees observed to regrow after burning during clearing opera­ tions. Mean annual temperature 23–28°C (73–82°F) Mean maximum temperature of hottest month 25–32°C (77–90°F) Mean minimum temperature of coldest month 17–24°C (63–75°F) Minimum temperature tolerated 5–7°C (41–45°F) (estimated) Soils Tropical almond naturally occurs on various coastal soils, especially raised sandy and rocky beaches. It is adapted to a wide range of lighter­textured soil types, including brack­ ish/saline and alkaline sands over limestone, but requires good drainage when grown on heavier, clayey soils. Frost he entire natural range is frost free. he tree is likely to be damaged at low temperatures (e.g., less than 5–7°C [41– 45°F]). Waterlogging he species is not well adapted to waterlogged conditions. Salt spray he species typically grows within a short distance (<100– 200 m [330–660 ft]) from the ocean and is adapted to ex­ posure to strong, often salt­laden winds. Wind Tropical almond is adapted to strong, steady coastal winds, as well as rather frequent (every 2–5 years) exposure to Soil texture It prefers light to medium soils (sands, sandy loams, loams, and sandy clay loams). Soil drainage It requires freely draining soils. Soil acidity Acid to neutral/mildly alkaline soils (pH 4.0–8.5). Special soil tolerances Tropical almond tolerates shallow soils and slightly saline soils. Tolerances Drought It is likely to be tolerant of droughts of less than 4–6 months duration and may shed leaves/canopy to withstand long dry spells. Full sun he tree grows most rapidly in full sun and regenerates mainly in open, well lit situations. Shade Tropical almond tolerates 0–25% shade. Seedlings and saplings tolerate moderate shade levels but require high light levels to grow satisfactorily, and mature trees prefer full sunlight. Tropical almond can withstand coastal winds and salt spray. photo: C. ElEvitCh Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 7 tropical cyclones over large parts of its range. While the species has overall good wind­irmness, some individuals sufer stem breakage and/or uprooting during tropical cy­ clones. Tropical almond may be partially defoliated by very strong winds, and this may aid its wind­irmness during cyclones. Abilities Regenerate rapidly he species regenerates abundantly on its preferred litto­ ral sites, notably in beds of washed–up debris and sand in strandline communities. Self-prune Tropical almond produce tiers of four or ive branches; as new tiers are produced by the leader apex, some of the lower branch tiers die back. he extent of self­pruning is variable, depending on genotype, density of surrounding vegetation, and light levels. Coppice Seedlings and saplings coppice strongly, although the extent of regrowth after severe pruning or damage is unknown in mature trees. he main leader may be cut out of the top, sometimes more than once, to create a very wide­spread­ ing shade or specimen tree. Excessive pruning by wind or man may cause weakening or death of mature trees. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Growth rate Under favorable conditions tropical almond is moderately fast to fast growing, with height growth in early years aver­ aging around 1.5–2 m (5–7 ft) per year. Very fast early height growth of 3–5 m (10–16 ft) per year has been observed on fertile sites on Santo, Vanuatu. Diameter growth is about 1 cm/yr (0.4 in/yr) over the life of the tree, up to 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr) for widely spaced trees growing in fertile sites. Reaction to competition On favorable sites the tree is able to quickly gain site con­ trol and shade out most weeds. It may be necessary to prune the lower one or two tiers of branches to reduce access for climbing weeds. his will also improve amenity as a shade tree. 8 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) PROPAGATION he species is readily propagated from seed. Mass vegeta­ tive propagation by rooted cuttings is also feasible. Propagation by seed Seed collection he timing of fruit maturation varies among regions and may be sporadic or occur more than once per year (see above under “Fruit”). Fruits are ready for collection when they are full size (which varies among trees) and have be­ gun to show some color change (i.e., become red­purple or yellow, or brownish in the case of green­fruited forms). Mature fruits are harvested from the tree by hand and/or with the aid of long­handled pole pruners. Recently fallen fruits may be collected from the ground. Seed processing here are about 15–60 fresh fruits/kg (7–27 fruits/lb). he leshy outer covering should be removed from the seed/nut as soon as possible after collection (within 1–2 days), e.g., by careful hammering between two lat stones. After re­ moval of the leshy outer covering, there are about 70–150 nuts (nut­in­shell) per kg (32–68 nuts/lb). Seed storage he seed storage behavior is unknown, but seeds appear to lose viability fairly rapidly under storage. Until efec­ tive medium­term seed storage procedures are developed it is recommended that seeds be sown within 4–6 weeks of collection. Pre-planting treatments Seeds may be sown without any pretreatment. Growing area Seeds are germinated in a freely draining potting mix in germination trays in a protected, rat­free area under cover, such as a shade house. Seedlings should be transplanted into containers as soon as is practicable after germination and emergence. Plants grow rapidly and require larger containers than many forest tree species: suitable contain­ ers include 15 cm (6 in) polybags or tapering, rigid plastic tubes (e.g., 15 cm [6 in] deep by 6.5 cm [2.6 in] square at top). Seedlings are progressively moved to higher light levels, e.g., 30–50% shade for 1–2 weeks after transplanting, then 25% shade for 1 month, then full sun for 2 months prior to outplanting. Germination Germination typically commences in 3–8 weeks, with a germination rate of greater than 50% for freshly harvested fully mature fruit. Media Seedlings should be grown in a standard potting mixture or fertile, freely draining sandy loam or loam, preferably with good levels of organic matter. Incorporation of a controlled­release, complete fertilizer into the potting mixture will ensure rapid, healthy seedling growth. Time to outplanting he time from germination to outplanting is about 4 months. Approximate size Plants should be about 25 cm (10 in) (max. 30 Propagation of seedlings of better nut morphotypes for distribution to cm [12 in]) tall at outplanting. Smaller seed­ farmers, Santo, Vanuatu. photo: K. aKEn lings about 20–25 cm (8–10 in) high may also be used. Potential for invasiveness he species naturalizes readily in suitable littoral habitats, Guidelines for outplanting and may be regarded as a potential weed threat to native Seedlings should be outplanted at the onset of the wet sea­ plant communities. However, the tree is usually not con­ son, typically early December in the South Paciic. A typi­ sidered a weed problem. cal sequence for seedling production in Vanuatu would be June, seed collection; July–August, germination; Septem­ ber–November, nursery phase; December–January, ield planting. Propagation by cutting For vegetative propagation for selected nut types, seedling hedges of better nut types can be planted. hese trees can be regularly cut back to a height of about 20–30 cm (8–12 in) or, preferably, by laying seedlings lat, pinning, and cut­ ting back new shoots. Multinode, semi­hardwood cuttings should be treated with rooting hormone (0.4% IBA pow­ der), set in washed river sand, and rooted under mist. Diseases and pests Plants are susceptible to termite attack, and damage may occur in some parts of its range. he leaves may be at­ tacked and eaten by various insects and larvae, including rose beetles, but the plant generally recovers well from insect damage and defoliation. he Secretariat of Paciic Community Plant Protection Service has developed a list of pests and diseases that have been reported on tropical almond in diferent countries, including 85 insects, 13 fungi, 8 nematodes, and 3 mites ( J. Wright pers. comm. 2004). Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor), a fungal stem canker, was recorded on tropical almond in India. DISADVANTAGES Host to crop pests/pathogens he species has no major drawbacks. he tree is already naturally very widespread in the Asia­Paciic region and has multiple uses, including providing important environ­ mental services such as coastal protection. he nuts are of­ ten not utilized or highly regarded as food because of the small size of the kernels and the diiculty of extracting them, but use of selected genetic material can greatly im­ prove the utility of tropical almond nuts as human food. he fruits are hosts for 21 fruit ly species including Carib­ bean fruit ly (Anastrepha suspensa) in Florida, and of the Mediterranean fruit ly (Ceratitis capitata) in Costa Rica, as well as a fruit piercing moth (Ophiusa coronata) Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 9 AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES Mulch/organic matter Annual/bi­annual leaf drop results in a good buildup of organic matter under the trees. Soil stabilization he well developed lateral root system helps to bind fragile sandy soils and maintain coastal shores, especially during storm surges and extreme high tides. It has been specii­ cally planted for soil conservation in India and Tanzania. Crop shade/overstory Mature trees cast a heavy, wide shade, when not in their brief deciduous phase. Tropical almond is only suitable for providing crop shade to the most shade tolerant crops such as cocoa (heobroma cacao). Alley cropping Tropical almond may be used in intercropping systems while the trees are still young (up to about 3 years old) and with comparatively wide­spaced alleys, e.g., 6–9 m (20–30 ft) apart. During the inal 3 years of the gardening phase in a rotational gardening or shifting cultivation, rows of trop­ ical almond can be grown together with the crops, prior to conversion to a forest plantation (and serving as improved fallow). Homegardens It is a good species for inclusion in homegardens at the rate of one to three trees per garden, providing nuts for local consumption from an early age, coupled with reason­ ably good stability during strong winds and cyclones. Improved fallows he tree makes an excellent species for inclusion in mixed­ species improved fallow plantings with a duration of at least 20–25 years to allow for production of timber. Windbreaks Tropical almond is an excellent species for inclusion as an upper to midstory layer in windbreaks. Animal fodder he foliage is suitable for feeding tasar or katkura silk­ worms. In the Caribbean, the fruit is an important food for birds and many wild mammals, and it is also consumed by various livestock, including pigs. 10 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Windbreak of tropical almond and beach she-oak (Casuarina equisetifolia). photo: C. ElEvitCh Woodlot he tree is a good species for inclusion in a mixed or single­ species woodlot for provision of timber and/or nuts. Native animal/bird food he fruits are consumed by birds and bats. Wildlife habitat he trees provide good wildlife habitat, being among the tallest trees in beach forests. Small birds sometimes nest in the lower branches. Bee forage he lowers yield nectar that is attractive to honeybees. Coastal protection his a species of choice for coastal protection and soil sta­ bilization, including beach stabilization just above the level of spring high tides. Key attributes for these roles include high salt tolerance (both foliar and soil), good cyclone resistance, surface rooting habit, and regular shedding of leaves that provide a moderately long­lasting mulch layer under the tree. Ornamental It is an attractive, long­lived tree well suited to ornamental and amenity plantings where space permits. It is especially suited to provision of shade in coastal open spaces, public parks, and along roadside verges. USES AND PRODUCTS he tasty kernels or nuts of tropical almond have tradition­ ally been incorporated, albeit in modest quantities, into the diet of peoples in coastal areas throughout much of the Asia­Paciic region. he nuts may be consumed fresh shortly after extraction from the shell or else preserved by smoking and consumed up to a year later. In some areas the nuts are mainly a snack food consumed by children, with the leshy fruit also sometimes being consumed. In other areas tropical almond nuts were highly regarded as a human food source. Types with larger kernels and soft­ er shells were selected and preferentially propagated and maintained in parts of Melanesia. Localities noted for good nut types include South­West Bay, Malekula (Vanu­ atu); Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands); and Mussau Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, and Iwa Island, Marshall Bennett Group (Papua New Guinea). In coastal areas the timber is often used in local building but is not well suited to high­decay situations (such as contact with the ground). he timber is traditionally used to make various items including canoes and drums, and as a fuelwood. he tree also has a wide range of traditional non­wood product uses. Tannin is extracted from the bark, leaves, roots, and fruit shell. he large leaves are used as wrapping material. A black dye is obtained from the bark, fruit, and foliage. It’s leaves and bark have a wide range of medicinal uses. At present the main planting of the species is for amenity plantings for coastal protection and shade, with smaller plantings of selected types for nut production. he nuts of the species remain an important local food source, and it is highly regarded as a building timber in parts of the Paciic, including Vanuatu and Samoa. Fruit Children sometimes consume the outer lesh of agreeable fruit types. In the Philippines a wine is made by ferment­ ing mature fruits. Superior nut morphotypes selected in Solomon Islands and introduced to Tonga in 2002. photos: K. aKEn Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 11 Nut/seed he nuts may be consumed fresh after extraction from the shell or preserved by drying or smoking and consumed up to a year later. In some local markets in Melanesia the fresh kernels are sold in bundles or skewered on sticks (palm frond spines). Kernels are easily damaged during extrac­ tion and start to mold within 1–2 days at ambient tempera­ tures. he sun­dried kernels yield 38–54% of a bland, yellow oil that is edible but becomes turbid on standing. Medicinal he leaves have many medicinal uses including diapho­ retic, anti­indigestion, and anti­dysentery. An infusion of the young leaves or scraped bark is occasionally taken as a potion for treating mouth infections in Tonga and Samoa and is used in the Cook Islands to bathe fractures. Young leaves are used in the Philippines to cure headache and colic. he bark is used as an astringent in dysentery and thrush. Timber he sawn timber has a wide range of end­uses including general building construction, especially interior purposes such as looring and furniture. Larger sound logs are suit­ able for veneer and plywood manufacture. he wood is not suitable for long­term ground contact. Fuelwood he wood is suitable for use as fuelwood. Craft wood/tools Traditional wood uses in the South Paciic include kava bowls, tool handles, clubs, walking sticks, and drums. Canoe/boat/raft making he wood is traditionally used to make canoe hulls and paddles in the South Paciic. he wood is also used in boat­ building. Wrapping/parcelization he leaves are infrequently used to wrap and carry food. Tannin/dye he bark and leaves (as well as fruit shells and roots) are rich in tannins and may be used for staining/coloring fab­ rics including tapa, tanning leather, and ink­making. Oil/lubricant Trials have been conducted to admix kernel oil into diesel fuel. 12 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) URBAN AND COMMUNITY FORESTRY (By Craig R. Elevitch) Tropical almond is a popular ornamental and shade tree throughout the tropics. he trees has a beautiful, broad, pa­ goda­like canopy and attractive leaves. Part of the appeal of the species as an ornamental is the bright red­orange­ yellow color of the leaves before each annual defoliation. In addition to its amenity services, the tree produces tasty nuts, traditional medicines, dye, and timber, all of which can be utilized from trees growing in urban areas. It with­ stands coastal conditions, including heavy salt spray and strong winds, and therefore is most commonly found in coastal urban areas. It is widely adaptable to various soils, including infertile sandy soils. Size in an urban environment In urban environments, the tree typically reaches 15–25 m (50–80 ft) tall with a broad canopy similar in diameter to the height of the tree. he trunk can grow to 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter at breast height. For urban environments, this is a large tree, which needs to be pruned regularly to control its size in more conined areas. Rate of growth in a landscape With care and in favored environments, trees can grow up to 2–4 m/yr (6.6–13 ft/yr) for the irst few years, although growth rates closer to 1 m/yr (3.3 ft/yr) are more typical. Root system he root system is deep in sandy substrates. In soils with shallow water table, it can develop an extensive surface root system that could interfere with maintenance activi­ ties, such as mowing. he formation of a buttressed trunk can lift sidewalks, foundations, curbs, pipes, etc., making it inadvisable to plant the tropical almond near such struc­ tures. Products commonly used in a Paciic island household he nuts are edible both raw and cooked, although eat­ ing quality and kernel size are variable. he nuts are an important food when in season in Vanuatu. In other areas such as Samoa, Tonga, New Guinea, and the Solomon Is­ lands, they are eaten rarely or just nibbled on by children. In Hawai‘i, few people are aware that the kernel is edible. he diiculty of extracting the kernel, variable eating qual­ ity, and absence of large­kernelled varieties may explain the lack of use of the nut in many areas. he outer lesh of the seed is also edible, although it is usually ibrous and not tasty. Fruits are cracked open to extract the kernel by a sharp blow to the edge or by hitting the pointed apex with a hammer. he leaves, bark, and fruit skin are used medicinally and are also used to make a black dye. he wood is used for construction, crafts, and canoes. It is an attractive, moderately durable timber well suited to interior uses, such as framing, paneling, looring, and fur­ niture. It also makes good irewood. Life span As an ornamental, tropical almond is expected to live about 60 years (Francis 1989) and up to 100 years in suitable en­ vironments. Varieties favored for use in homegardens or public areas Its seedlings tolerate light shade (0–25%), although the tree performs best in full sun. here are many forms found regionally (see “Variability” above). here has been long­term domestication and se­ lection of large­kernelled forms in parts of PNG, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. hese nut morphotypes are favored for home and village gardens. Water/soil requirements Seasonality of leaf lush, lowering, fruiting Tropical almond grows best in sands and loamy sands, but it can grow very well in silts, loams, and clays. It is also known to grow in the poor­quality ill that is often found in urban areas (Francis 1989). Trees lose their leaves once or twice a year during dry pe­ riods. Trees generally lower and fruit once annually, al­ though in many areas such as Hawai‘i, Fiji, and Tonga, lowering and fruiting take place continuously throughout the year. Light requirements Clockwise from top left: horizontal form of pruned tree, Apia, Samoa; pollarded tree, North Kohala, Hawai‘i; tree in homegarden alongside mango, breadfruit, and rain tree, Apia, Samoa. photos: C. ElEvitCh Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 13 Exceptional ornamental values he large, dark green leaves are attractive and showy, espe­ cially prior to seasonal shedding. As new leaves appear, the bright green new growth is also conspicuous and attractive. In its preferred seaside environments, the deep shade cast by the tree is often very welcome to beachgoers. he broad canopy is readily identiiable and appreciated as shade. Large trees with buttressed trunks 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter or more can make spectacular community landmarks and gathering places. Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier he form of the tree, with a single dominant trunk and horizontal spreading branches, does not lend itself to hedges or barriers. Birds/wildlife Birds and bats consume the fruit. Maintenance requirements In urban environments requiring a tidy appearance, the seasonal leaf and fruit drop necessitates regular removal of debris from underneath trees. Where the size of the tree must be controlled, such as in a small homegarden, the tree can be shaped at an early age to a desirable size. In this case the main stem can be cut at a desired height, favoring horizontal branches. In Samoa and elsewhere, the lower branches of the trees are sometimes weighted down so that the tree will be a more attractive or efective shade tree. he tree can also be pollarded to control the height and canopy diameter. In pollarding, a framework of several stems is formed at a desired height by pruning the tree during its early development. hese stems are then pruned back heavily every 2–5 years. Tropical almond does not require fertilizer except in the most infertile soils. It tolerates drought, but performs bet­ ter in consistently moist conditions. Nuisance issues In urban areas the loss of leaves once or twice a year may be considered “messy,” but the preceding change of leaf color before dropping can be spectacular. he lowers have a slightly fetid odor, although the smell is rarely strong enough to be considered a nuisance. he trees also tend to grow rather large for urban environments. Hazards Although the tree is a coastal species and adapted to with­ stand storm winds, branches can snap in high winds (Wal­ 14 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) ter and Sam 2002). herefore trees should be planted well clear of building structures. Common pest problems Many insects and larvae feed on the leaves, including rose beetles, but trees usually recover well from periodic infes­ tations. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS he main commercial products of tropical almond are sawn timber for local use, especially in house and building con­ struction, and kernels for human consumption. Timber he heartwood of tropical almond is variable in color, often brown to reddish­brown, with a wide, rather indistinct band of lighter colored sapwood. he timber is smooth, lustrous, elastic, tough, moderately hard, and medium­coarse in tex­ ture, often with an irregular or twisted grain. he wood is moderately dense, e.g., 530–540 kg/m3 (33–34 lb/ft3) at 12% moisture content. he timber has been variously reported as seasoning rapidly with a moderate level of degrade or else as not easily seasoned. he timber is readily sawn, but interlocked grain tends to pick up during planing. Other machining characteristics are as follows: shaping, boring, and mortising are fair; turning is poor; sanding, resistance to screw splitting, and nailing properties are good. Nuts In Vanuatu one local company purchases tropical al­ mond kernels from around the country for US$6–7 per kg (US$2.73–3.18/lb). he kernels are checked for quality, dried, and retailed in 40 g (1.4 oz) jars in Port Vila supermarkets for more than US$80 per kg (US$36/lb). Demand is high, and the company would like to purchase 1000 kg (2200 lb) of kernels per year (equivalent to 30–50 mt [27–45 t] of fruits). In Port Vila and Loganville markets, fresh tropical almond kernels are sold in bundles or skewered on sticks (palm frond spines/midribs) for the equivalent of US$12–17 per kg (US$5.45–7.73/lb). Spacing Timber An appropriate initial spacing for commercial produc­ tion of timber in monocultural plantings is 3 x 5 m (10 x 16 ft) (equivalent to 667 stems/ha [270 stems/ac]). Wider inter­row spacing could be used to reduce weeding costs. Intercropping with short­term crops could be done with a tree spacing of 3 x 8 m (10 x 26 ft) (i.e., 417 stems/ha Left: Nuts skewered onto palm lealet midribs and sold in Port Vila market, Vanuatu; pictured: author Lex homson. photos: K. aKEn Right: he late Justin West standing among 2–3-year-old tropical almond trees he planted in a small plantation outside Port Vila, Efate, Vanuatu. photo: B. Evans [169 stems/ac]). he inal density for sawlog production is about 150–200 stems/ha (61–81 stems/ac). A suitable area for commercial production would be 10 (or more) hectares (25+ ac), but even small woodlot areas of about 1 ha (2.5 ac) could be grown on a commercial basis by groups of small­ holders to supply local saw mills. Nuts A wide spacing is recommended, coupled with pruning out the lead shoot to encourage low, wide­spreading lateral branching. he suggested spacing is 8–9 x 8–9 m (26–30 x 26–30 ft), i.e., 123–156 trees per ha (50–63 trees/ac). Both nuts and timber Suggested spacing is close within rows (e.g., 2 m [6.6 ft]) and wide between rows (e.g., 8 m [16 ft]). his gives an initial spacing of 625 trees/ha (253 trees/ac), which is even­ tually thinned down to a inal spacing of about 150 trees/ha (61 trees/ac) by removal of poorer formed individuals in one or two non­commercial thinning operations at age 3–6 years. Management objectives he aim of management for timber production is to pro­ duce high­quality sawlogs within an economically feasible and attractive time frame; e.g., a rotation period of 20–25 years. his will include use of selected genetic material, reg­ ular maintenance in early years including frequent removal of creepers, and one or more thinnings to maintain site control and concentrate wood increment on better­formed stems. Progressive pruning of lower whorls of branches up to a height of about 12 m (39 ft) may be required to produce Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 15 less knotty sawlogs of higher value. Such prun­ ing should be done in several steps, to maintain at least two­thirds of the canopy leaf area at any one pruning. Design considerations For production of nuts, it is recommended that plantings be located in areas with good access to major marketplaces, so that extracted kernels can reach the market quickly without risk of spoiling. Advantages and disadvantages of growing in polycultures Tropical almond has the potential to be well suited to growing in polycultures with other fast­ growing timber species such as Endospermum medullosum. he fast­growing but smaller Flueggea lexuosa could be interplanted and har­ vested after 7–10 years to provide durable poles. Intercopping with cassava and other crops on Santo, Vanuatu. photo: l. thomson Yields Timber here is no data available concerning growth rate over the projected rotation length of about 20–25 years. It is likely that good­quality, well maintained plantations on fertile sites grow at about 15–20 m3/ha/yr (215–286 ft3/ac/yr). Nuts Signiicant amounts of fruits are produced 3–5 years after planting, with regular fruiting once or twice a year depend­ ing upon latitude, location, and health of the tree. Kernel yield is estimated to be about 5 kg (11 lb) per tree per year (or about 0.5 to 1 mt/ha/yr [0.18–0.36 t/ac/yr]), but yields might be double that for selected genetic stock grown on high­quality sites. Processing required he greatest obstacle to the commercial marketing of the nut is its low kernel content and the lack of on­farm com­ mercial storage technologies that would allow fruits to be processed in villages and the high value kernels to be transported to central processing units. For nut production, the lesh should be removed manually from fruits on­farm, and the nuts should be at least partly dried to remove sur­ face moisture. his will considerably reduce the bulk and weight of material to be transported without spoilage to market and reduce the risk of spoilage. Drying and smok­ ing of nuts on­farm would add considerable value and pro­ 16 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) duce a more durable product with a considerably extended shelf life. Market Timber Markets for planted tropical almond timber are the local timber markets for general­purpose timbers. Nuts he size of the international market for nuts is likely lim­ ited. However, tropical almond nuts (along with Canarium indicum nuts) have the potential to behave as under­sup­ plied niche commodities with a highly inelastic demand, commanding a price equivalent to macadamia nuts (cur­ rently more than US$10/kg [US$4.55/lb]) wholesale, i.e., 2.5 times the price of mainstream nuts such as almonds, providing packaging and quality are similar. High­value niche markets and value could be secured and enhanced by organic certiication, promotion of tropical almond as an exotic commodity, and direct internet­based marketing. Marketing opportunities and constraints for Paciic tree nuts depend on quality control, packaging, continuity of supply, and targeting marketing toward speciic groups, such as tourists. INTERPLANTING/FARM APPLICATIONS Example system 1 Location Temotu Traditional Tree­based Agriculture (Santa Cruz Islands, Solomon Islands). Description Tropical almond is planted as an outer bound­ ary tree on the windward side of multi­species ,multistory agroforestry plots to protect more vulnerable species against sea spray and wind. Yields/benefits Fuelwood, timber, and kernels. Spacing About 5–8 m (16–26 ft) within rows. Example system 2 Location Shark Bay, Santo, Vanuatu. Description Newly developed, experimental system started in January, 2000. here are no data available on yields. he beneit of intercropping is that while farmers receive early returns, while waiting for the trees to start bearing nuts. Good weeding ensures high survival and rapid early growth of trees. Crop/tree interactions During the irst 2 years, various traditional root and leaf crops are grown as intercrops with sim­ ilar production to pure cropping systems. Spacing Spacing is 5 x 5 m (16 x 16 ft) or 400 trees per hectare (160 trees/ac). PUBLIC ASSISTANCE See general extension links at: http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html Top: 2.5-year-old tropical almond trial planting at Shark Bay, Santo, Vanuatu. photo: K. aKEn Bottom: same Shark Bay planting as above at 5 years old; this tree has reached 20 m (65 ft) in height. photo: l. thomson Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 17 BIBLIOGRAPHY (☛ indicates recommended reading) Addison, G.H., and M.R. Henderson. 1953. Notes on the planting of ornamental and shade trees in Malaya, with additional notes on palms and hedges. he Malayan For­ ester 16: 133–146. Benthall, A.P. 1946. Trees of Calcutta and its Neighbour­ hood. hacker, Spink, Calcutta. Bolza, E. 1975. Properties and Uses of 175 Timber Species from Papua New Guinea and West Irian. Report 34. Divi­ sion of Building Research, CSIRO, Australia. Bolza, E., and N.H. Kloot. 1972. he Mechanical Properties of 56 Fijian Timbers. Technical Paper 62. 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Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 19 Species Proiles for Paciic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Authors: Lex A.J. homson1 and Barry Evans2 1. South Paciic Regional Initiative of Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) Project, SPC Forestry Program, Suva, Fiji (current contact info: IPGRI, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a, 00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Rome, Italy; E­mail: L.homson@cgiar.org). 2. SPRIG Marketing Specialist, 30 Berry St, Sherwood, QLD 4075, Australia; E­mail: barryevans@bigpond.com. Acknowledgments: he authors and publisher thank Dale Evans, John Francis, Heidi Johansen, Diane Ragone, Secretariat of the Paciic Community­Plant Protection Service, and Art Whistler for their input. Photo contributions by Kron Aken and J. B. Friday are greatly appreciated. Recommended citation: homson, L.A.J., and B. Evans. 2006. Terminalia catappa (tropical almond), ver. 2.2. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Proiles for Paciic Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. <http://www.tradi­ tionaltree.org>. Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sus­ tainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA­WSARE) Program; SPC/GTZ Paciic­German Regional Forestry Project; USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program; State of Hawai‘i Department of Land & Natural Resources Division of Forestry & Wildlife; Kaulunani, an Urban Forestry Pro­ gram of the DLNR Division of Forestry and Wildlife and the USDA Forest Service; and Muriel and Kent Lighter. his material is based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2002­47001­01327. Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808­324­4427; Fax: 808­324­ 4129; E­mail: par@agroforestry.net; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>. his institution is an equal opportunity provider. Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from <http://www.traditionaltree.org>. his publication may be repro­ duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. © 2006 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All rights reserved. 20 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)