Marine Biology (2003) 142: 427–440
DOI 10.1007/s00227-002-0956-9
J.L. Maté
Ecological, genetic, and morphological differences
among three Pavona (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) species
from the Pacific coast of Panama
I. P. varians, P. chiriqiensis, and P. frondifera
Received: 22 January 2002 / Accepted: 12 September 2002 / Published online: 3 December 2002
Springer-Verlag 2002
Abstract Ecological, genetic, and morphological differences among three Panamanian Pacific Pavona species
with strongly developed collines (Pavona varians,
P. frondifera, and P. chiriquiensis) were examined.
Ecological factors included geographical distributions of
species, habitat preferences, interspecific interactions,
reproductive ecology, and tolerance to bleaching.
Genetic differences were based on the electrophoretic
analysis of ten allozyme loci. Morphological analyses
consisted of tissue coloration, colony morphology, and
measurements and counts of ten macro- and microskeletal characters. P. varians, present on reefs or in
coral communities, is the most widely distributed and
shows considerable morphological variation. P. chiriquiensis, a recently described species, encrusts basalt rock
and has little morphological variation. P. frondifera is a
reef dweller with a compact foliose morphology. Tissue
coloration varies from light to dark brown in P. varians,
from pink to brown in P. frondifera, and from brick red
to brown or silvery in Pavona chiriquiensis. Also, the
white to silvery polyp mouths of the latter species are a
diagnostic feature that allows an easy identification in
the field. Aggressive dominance during short-term interspecific interactions were as follows: Pavona chiriquiensis>P. varians>P. frondifera. P. chiriquiensis and P.
varians showed contrasting responses to sea warming
during the 1997–1998 El Niño Southern Oscillation.
Whereas entire P. chiriquiensis bleached and died within
4 weeks of exposure to 30–31C, colonies of P. varians
did so only on their upper surfaces. The response of P.
frondifera to elevated temperatures was not observed
because it is mainly present in the Gulf of Panama where
coral bleaching was absent in 1997–1998. The genetic
data indicated that P. chiriquiensis differed strongly from
both P. varians and P. frondifera, with Nei’s unbiased
genetic distances of 0.434 and 0.379, respectively. A fixed
difference between P. varians and P. frondifera, and P.
chiriquiensis exists at the triose phosphate isomerase
(TPI-2) locus. A nearly fixed difference between P.
chiriquiensis and P. frondifera and between P. chiriquiensis and P. varians was found at the hexokinase (HK)
locus. P. varians differed slightly from P. frondifera with
Nei’s unbiased genetic distance of 0.068. No fixed difference was found between P. varians and P. frondifera.
There were strong differences between P. chiriquiensis
and P. varians in spawning times and gamete characteristics. Spawning in P. varians and P. chiriquiensis is
12 h out of phase. Also, eggs of the former species are
white to beige and positively buoyant whereas those of
the latter species are dark green and neutrally to negatively buoyant. No reproductive data are yet available
for P. frondifera. Calicular diameters are significantly
greater in P. chiriquiensis than in the other two species.
In contrast, corallum thickness is greater in P. varians
and P. frondifera than in P. chiriquiensis. Canonical
discriminant function analysis readily separated the
three species.
Communicated by P.W. Sammarco, Chauvin
Introduction
J.L. Maté
Division of Marine Biology and Fisheries,
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science,
University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway,
Miami, FL 33149-1098, USA
Pavona varians Verrill, 1864 (Verrill 1864); P. chiriquiensis Glynn, Maté, and Stemann, 2001 (Glynn et al.
2001b); and P. frondifera Lamarck, 1816 (Lamarck
1816) are similar members of the genus on the Pacific
coast of Panama. In addition to their often small size,
they differ from other Panamanian Pavona by their
strong development of collines. P. varians and P. frondifera are distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region
E-mail: matej@naos.si.edu
Present address: J.L. Maté
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute,
Apartado 2072, Balboa, Republic of Panama
428
(Dana 1846; Dai and Lin 1992; Veron 1993). However,
P. chiriquiensis is presumed to be endemic to the eastern
tropical Pacific (Glynn et al. 2001b). In the eastern Pacific, P. varians is the most widespread species. It has
been found at 10 of 11 (90.9%) major sites examined
(Glynn and Ault 2000). The other two species are less
common, with P. chiriquiensis present at 6 sites (54.5%)
and P. frondifera present at just 2 sites (18.2%). In this
region, P. frondifera is only found in Costa Rica (Cortés
and Guzmán 1998) and Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000).
All three species have been shown to form locally
abundant populations, but their contributions to reef
building are typically relatively low (Glynn 1974a, b,
1976; Glynn et al. 1982; Glynn and Wellington 1983;
Guzmán and Cortés 1989; Vargas-Ángel 1996), particularly for P. chiriquiensis, which is usually found at
inter-reef sites.
These three species of Pavona are considered the most
taxonomically difficult Pavona in the Panamanian Pacific.
P. varians, as the name implies, shows considerable
morphological variation that may be closely related to
variation in the environmental conditions resulting from
the wide habitat preferences of the species (Glynn 1976,
1983; Veron and Pichon 1979). Extreme variation in
morphology may even occur within the same colony
(Glynn and Wellington 1983). These extremes in morphological variation may cause this species to be confused
with P. chiriquiensis or P. frondifera in certain environments. P. chiriquiensis was considered for many years to
be a morphological variant of P. varians and later was
recognized as a separate species (Glynn et al. 2000).
However, P. chiriquiensis has recently been described in
terms of multiple differences in ecology, allozymes, and
morphological characteristics that clearly set it apart
from P. varians (Glynn et al. 2001b). Although P. frondifera has been recognized from the Pacific coast of
Panama (Glynn and Maté 1997), it has been poorly
studied. In many cases, the species status has been impossible to validate because of its morphological similarities with P. varians. Additionally, P. frondifera is a
rare species that in Panama is restricted to only a few sites.
The recognition of species boundaries is a necessary
step to understand the biogeographic and ecological
distribution of organisms, as well as the mechanisms by
which speciation occurs (McFadden 1999). Traditionally, scleractinian coral species have been classified primarily on the basis of their skeleton, since this is readily
available in museum collections (Vaughan and Wells
1943; Potts et al. 1993). However, the high levels of
polymorphism attributed to local environmental conditions or genetic differences among populations are
among the most difficult problems confronting coral
systematists (Budd 1993; Weil and Knowlton 1994). The
use of non-skeletal characteristics to circumvent problems arising from this classical approach has figured
prominently in the characterization of only a few scleractinian species (Lang 1984). Molecular studies have
recently proved useful in delineating species boundaries,
particularly in marine species with few informative
morphological characteristics and high intraspecific
phenotypic diversity (e.g. Avise 1974, 1994; Weil and
Knowlton 1994; Williams 2000; Glynn et al. 2001b). In
sympatry, fixed genetic differences are enough. But
sometimes genetic differences are not fixed. Then, other
characters are especially useful (e.g. Montastraea) when
concordant. Multi-character approaches have been
successfully used to separate problematic coral species,
for example, two Acropora species on the Great Barrier
Reef by Ayre et al. (1991), three Montastraea species
from the Caribbean by Knowlton et al. (1992) and Weil
and Knowlton (1994), four Pacific Porites species by
Potts and Garthwaite (1991), and four Caribbean Porites species by Potts et al. (1993).
In this study, I examined the differences among three
Pavona species with collines from the Pacific coast of
Panama by means of a multi-character approach that
united the ecological, molecular, and morphological
characteristics. The ecological aspects of the study included species distributions, habitat preferences, interspecific interactions, reproductive ecology, and responses
to the 1997–1998 El Niño sea-warming event. Allozyme
electrophoresis was used to examine the genetic differences between species because of its high resolving power
with closely related species (Avise 1974, 1994). The
morphological analyses included colony form, tissue
coloration, and the traditional macro- and micro-morphological characteristics of the coral skeleton.
Materials and methods
Collections and sample preparation
Samples of Pavona varians, P. chiriquiensis, and P. frondifera
(Fig. 1A–C, respectively) were collected at several sites in both the
non-upwelling Gulf of Chiriquı́ and the upwelling Gulf of Panama
on the Pacific coast of Panama (Table 1, Fig. 2A–D). Forty-four
sites, including reef and inter-reef habitats, were surveyed in both
areas. During diving surveys information on habitat, depth, and
colony coloration was recorded for sampled specimens. Large coral
fragments (up to 735 cm2) were collected when possible to allow for
a morphological analysis after the required tissue for electrophoresis
was taken. The size of fragments removed was adjusted to minimize
colony death. Tissue samples for electrophoretic analysis were removed from the coral skeleton using flat-tip pliers or chisels, placed
in cryovials, and mixed with five drops of Stoddart grinding buffer
(Stoddart 1983) before being frozen in liquid nitrogen. The remainder of the coral skeleton was bleached in 10% sodium hypochlorite, rinsed, dried, catalogued, and stored until later
morphological analyses. The identifications of P. varians and P.
frondifera were performed according to the taxonomic treatments of
Yabe et al. (1936); Veron and Pichon (1979); and Dai and Lin
(1992), as well as the original descriptions by species authors (Lamarck 1816; Verrill 1864). The identification of P. chiriquiensis
follows the species description (Glynn et al. 2001b). Most collections
were made in early 1997, before the beginning of the El Niño event.
Interspecific tissue interactions
Field surveys were conducted to observe coral-to-coral interactions
(Lang 1973) among Pavona species. Those Pavona species observed
to interact in the field (P. chiriquiensis and P. varians) were brought
to the laboratory for interaction studies. Fragments of two colonies
429
larly full moons during the dry season that extends from midDecember to mid-May (Glynn et al. 2000). Detailed field and
laboratory methodologies related to spawning observations and
fertilization trials can be found in Glynn et al. (2000). No reproductive data are available for P. frondifera.
Coral bleaching and mortality
The 1997–1998 El Niño provided an opportunity to study the effects of anomalous sea warming on corals, particularly those species considered here. Warm waters from El Niño influenced only
sites in the Gulf of Chiriquı́. Sea temperatures were not unduly
elevated in the upwelling Gulf of Panama. El Niño warming effects
were monitored in P. varians and P. chiriquiensis in the Gulf of
Chiriquı́, but not in P. frondifera due to its rarity there. A flexible
measuring tape calibrated in millimeters or a square wire mesh
(2.5·2.5 cm) was used to measure the areas of normal, bleached,
and dead tissues. Colonies were recorded as normal only when their
natural brown coloration predominated. Bleached colonies exhibited loss of coloration (from pale to fully bleached). Dead areas
were in most cases covered with filamentous algae. In some colonies
it was possible to identify two or more categories. The percentage
of each condition was recorded. In situ temperature recorders
(Onset Computers) provided information on the timing of the two
sea-warming events that led to the bleaching and mortality of
corals (see Fig. 5 in Glynn et al. 2001a). The anomalous El Niño
warming affected corals in two different periods, August 1997 and
March 1998. Species affected by the first bleaching event were
monitored monthly from September through December 1997. Effects from the second bleaching event and recovery were observed
during March 1998, May 1999, and May 2000.
Electrophoretic analysis
Fig. 1 Live in situ colonies of A Pavona varians (Uva Island, site 5,
3.2 m depth, May 1997); B P. chiriquiensis (Uva Island, site 5, 3 m
depth, May 1997); and C P. frondifera (Saboga Island, site 1, 2.5 m
depth, May 1999). Note long ridges and valleys and uniform darkbrown coloration of polyps and coenosarc in P. varians (A), white
oral discs and mouths, hydnophorae, and short collines in P.
chiriquiensis (B), and long ridges and valleys, foliose morphology,
and uniform light-brown coloration of polyps and coenosarc in
P. frondifera (C)
(from 2·2 cm to 10·15 cm) of the same or different species were
placed in immediate contact so they barely touched. The contacts
were observed daily for a maximum of 7 days and included
observations on extension of mesenterial filaments, time of onset
of the interaction, and extent of tissue mortality.
Reproductive ecology
The timing of spawning of P. chiriquiensis and P. varians was estimated from histological slides to occur around new and particu-
Horizontal starch (SIGMA S-4501) gel electrophoresis was used to
analyze seven enzymes coding for ten loci under two buffer systems.
Enzymes, buffers, and running conditions are presented in Table 2.
On the day of the electrophoresis run, a small portion of the tissue
was placed on a grinding plate cell and macerated in three drops of
Stoddart’s buffer (Stoddart 1983). A piece of Miracloth filter
(Calbiochem Inc.) was placed on top of the homogenate to reduce
the amount of coral mucus that would adhere to the paper wicks
(Whatman #3 filter paper), which were loaded onto starch gels and
run at 4C. After the electrophoretic run, gels were sectioned with a
custom-designed ‘‘guitar-string’’ slicer. Zymograms were visualized
using stain recipes modified by Williams (1992) and Weil and Weigt
(1996) from Harris and Hopkinson (1976). Alleles were labeled
alphabetically according to their mobility from fastest to slowest.
For those enzymes having two loci, the loci were labeled numerically starting with the fastest migrating one. The BIOSYS-1 software package (Swofford and Selander 1989) was used to calculate
gene frequencies and Nei’s (1978) unbiased genetic distances (D)
among samples and to perform an unweighted pair group method
average (UPGMA) cluster analysis.
Morphometrics
Digital images of skeletal characters were generated using a Kodak
DCS 420 digital camera fitted with a 1:1 SIGMA macro lens. Images were imported into the SigmaScanPro (SPSS, Inc.) image
analysis package where linear measurements and counts were made
on ten morphological characters (Table 3, Fig. 3). Characters were
measured and counted on six corallites per colony, from which a
colony mean was calculated. Ten colonies per locality were generally used in the analyses, except for those localities with fewer
numbers of individuals (Table 1). The statistical packages Sigma
Stat and SPSS (SPSS, Inc.) were used for all univariate and
multivariate analyses, respectively. Pavona species groups were
separated by discriminant canonical analysis that tested the
hypothesis that the three groups were homogeneous.
430
Table 1 Locality, total number
of colonies collected of each
species (n), and depth ranges
with reference to mean lower
low water for each locality. See
Fig. 2 for geographic location
of sites by site number
Locality
Site
Species
Pavona chiriquiensis
n
Gulf of Panama
Saboga Island
Iguana Island
Gulf of Chiriquı́
Jicarita Island
Coiba Island
Uva Island
Secas Island
Silva de Afuera Island
Montuosa Island
Restinge Island
1
2
1
6
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
6
1
36
0
5
7
4
Results
Distribution, abundance, and habitat preference
All three Pavona species are found in both the Gulf of
Panama (Fig. 2A–C) and the Gulf of Chiriquı́ (Fig. 2A,
D). P. varians is the most widely distributed, being
found at 46.7% of the sites (Fig. 4A). P. chiriquiensis
Fig. 2 A Map of Panama showing explored and collecting sites in
detail; B Bay of Panama; C Pearl Islands; and D The central
portion of the Gulf of Chiriquı́. Black arrows point to the 44 sites
explored during this study. Circled numbers in A, C, and D indicate
collecting sites: 1 Saboga Island; 2 Iguana Island; 3 Jicarita Island;
4 Coiba Island; 5 Uva Island; 6 Secas Island; 7 Silva de Afuera
Island; and 8 Montuosa Island
Depth (m)
6.7
4.2
4.5
6.3
3.0–9.0
–
16.7
6.6
4.6
P. varians
P. frondifera
n
Depth (m)
n
Depth (m)
58
5
5.0–9.0
1.5–15.2
40
0
3.5
–
2
15
94
9
5
9
2
4.5
4.5–9.0
1.2–15.1
4.5–9.0
15.1
5.1–16.7
3.0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
–
6.1
13.0
–
–
–
–
and P. frondifera were found at 24.4% and 6.7% of the
sites examined, respectively (Fig. 4B, C). Depth distributions demonstrate the overlapping occurrences of the
three species (Table 1).
At Saboga Island (site 1, Fig. 2C) and Uva Island
(site 5, Fig. 2D), P. varians is particularly abundant,
with more than 100 colonies seen at each of these sites.
The rocky shores of Uva Island and Jicarita Island
(site 3, Fig. 2D) harbor the largest known populations
of P. chiriquiensis.
P. varians has the broadest habitat preference of the
three species. It lives free or attached to reef frameworks
or to rocky substrates, in the rubble zone, and in soft
bottom areas. It also occurs on open substrates, in crevices, caves, and overhangs. P. chiriquiensis typically
encrusts basaltic outcrops with only four specimens
being found in reef areas. P. frondifera has been found
431
Table 2 Enzyme buffer systems employed in the electrophoretic analysis of ten putative loci in three Pavona species. E.C. Enzyme
Commission
Enzyme
E.C. number
Number of loci
Buffer system
Glucose phosphate isomerase (GPI)
Glutamate dehydrogenase (GTDH)
Hexokinase (HK)
Leucyl-proline peptidase (LPP)
Leucyl-valine-peptidase (LVP)
Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGDH)
Triose phosphate isomerase (TPI)
5.3.1.9
1.4.1.2
2.7.1.1
3.4.11/13
3.4.11/13
1.1.1.44
5.3.1.1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
TC 8.0a
TC 8.0
LiOH 8-1-8.4b
LiOH 8-1-8.4
LiOH 8-1-8.4
TC 8.0
LiOH 8-1-8.4
a
b
Tris citrate (TC 8.0), pH 8.0, 90 mA, 6–8 h (Selander et al. 1971)
Tris citrate borate (LiOH), pH 8.4, 350 V, 4–6 h (Selander et al. 1971, modified by Harris and Hopkinson 1976)
Table 3 Macro- and micromorphometric measurements
taken in three species of Pavona
with strongly developed collines. See Fig. 3 for a graphic
representation of most characters
Skeletal characters measured
Code Description
Maximum calicular diameter
CD1 Maximum distance across the inside area of the corallite
not including the walls
CD2 Maximum distance across the inside area of the corallite
not including the walls but perpendicular
to the maximum calicular diameter
SL
Linear distance of the largest septa reaching the columella
CL1 Maximum distance across the columella
CL2 Maximum distance across the columella perpendicular
to the columella maximum diameter
CW Linear distance across the flat top of the ridge
NS1 Count of the total number of septa
NS2 Count of the total number of septa that join the columella
Minimum calicular diameter
Main septa length
Maximum columellar diameter
Minimum columellar diameter
Colline width
Number of septa
Number of septa reaching the
columella
Number of septocostae
Corallum thickness
SC
CT
Count of colline septocostae in 1 mm
Maximum distance from the base to the top of the corallum
P. varians may exist under weak to strong current
regimes, but rarely in high-energy environments.
P. chiriquiensis occurs on protected rock surfaces, not
exposed to direct wave assault. P. frondifera occurs only
in protected reef areas.
Polyp expansion and interspecific tissue interactions
Fig. 3 Measurements made on individual corallites for morphometric analyses. CD Calicular diameter (measured as the maximum
and minimum diameter); CL columella diameter (measured as the
maximum and minimum diameter); SL septum length; and CW
colline width
None of the three Pavona species displays expanded
polyps during the day except during periods of rapid
water flow. In all species, polyps are usually extended at
night and colony surfaces are ruffled.
Field contact interactions between colonies of P.
chiriquiensis and P. varians at Uva Island (n=1) and at
Jicarita Island (n=2) showed P. varians overgrowing P.
chiriquiensis by overtopping with a free laminar edge.
Laboratory contact experiments demonstrated unilateral extracoelenteric destructive effects by P. chiriquiensis
(Table 4). Also, P. varians killed the tissues of P. frondifera. Stand-offs were evident between P. chiriquiensis
and P. varians, as well as in all intraspecific contact trials
(Table 4).
Coral bleaching and mortality
exclusively in reef rubble areas where it occurs mainly as
attached colonies. Larger colonies of P. frondifera
encrust substrata; smaller ones occur free or are lightly
attached to the substrata.
P. chiriquiensis was the most sensitive species to the
1997–1998 El Niño warming event. Uniform bleaching
(100%) occurred in P. chiriquiensis approximately
432
mortality was evident. Mortality rates in P. varians were
of the order of 1–15% of the live surface cover (see also
Glynn et al. 2001a).
Reproductive ecology
Spawning in P. varians and P. chiriquiensis occurs in
sympatry about 12 h apart during the crepuscular period on the same day. P. varians spawns 15 min to 2 h
before sunrise whereas P. chiriquiensis spawns shortly
after sunset. The white mouths of P. chiriquiensis become extremely distended prior to spawning. No evident change in mouth size was noted in P. varians. In
P. varians and P. chiriquiensis sperm was released as a
diffuse cloud. In P. varians the barely visible eggs,
which are white to beige, are confined to mucus strings
and rise slowly to the surface; in P. chiriquiensis, eggs
are released as clouds, have a dark green color, and
are neutrally to negatively buoyant (see Glynn et al.
2000).
Allozyme electrophoresis
Fig. 4 Distributional maps of A P. varians; B P. chiriquiensis; and
C P. frondifera. Black arrows indicate species presence at a site. See
Fig. 2A–D and Table 1 for names of localities
3 weeks after the warming began. A month later, tissue
mortality was 99%. However, once temperatures returned to ambient levels, surviving fragments had rapidly regained their normal coloration. This species
recovered quickly. In contrast, P. varians underwent
partial bleaching and mortality on its upper surfaces
only. P. varians colonies with an encrusting growth form
bleached in a similar way to P. chiriquiensis, but no
All 40 P. frondifera colonies sampled at Saboga Island
showed identical banding patterns and fixed heterozygosity at the HK locus. In P. chiriquiensis, there were
39 different multi-locus genotypes in 61 specimens
examined (63.9%). In P. varians, there were 75 in 173
specimens examined (43.4%).
Eight enzymes were polymorphic (Table 5). The allozyme comparison of eight populations of P. varians,
six populations of P. chiriquiensis, and three populations
of P. frondifera indicated the distinctiveness of P. chiriquiensis. P. chiriquiensis differed strongly from both
P. varians and P. frondifera, with Nei’s unbiased genetic
distances of 0.434 (6.40 m.y.a.) and 0.379 (5.57 m.y.a.),
respectively. A fixed difference was found at the triose
phosphate isomerase (TPI-2) locus (Table 5). Nearly
fixed differences exist between P. chiriquiensis and the
other two species at the hexokinase (HK), the phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGDH), and the glutamate dehydrogenase (GTDH-2) loci. P. varians differed
slightly from P. frondifera with Nei’s unbiased genetic
Table 4 Intra- and interspecific contact-induced mortality in three Pavona species as measured by visible tissue loss. Maximum tissue
dissolution for all interactions was approximately 1·1 mm. No mortality of the dominant species was observed. Duration of interactions
was 3–7 days
Pairing type
Number of pairs
Interspecific
P. chiriquiensis–P. varians
50
P. chiriquiensis–P. frondifera 10
P. varians–P. frondifera
10
Intraspecific (fragments from different colonies)
P. chiriquiensis–P. chiriquiensis 10
P. varians–P. varians
10
P. frondifera–P. frondifera
10
% of pairs aggressive
% of stand-offs
50
100
100
50
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
Dominant species
Onset days
P. chiriquiensis
P. chiriquiensis
P. varians
1
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
433
Table 5 Summary chart of sample size, number of genotypes, and
gene frequencies for six populations of P. chiriquiensis, eight populations of P. varians, and three populations of P. frondifera collected on the Pacific coast of Panama. 1 Saboga Island; 2 Iguana
P. chiriquiensis
Site
2
n
6
Geno- 2
types
Locus/Allele
TPI-2
A
0
B
0.500
C
0.500
D
0
E
0
HK
A
0
B
0
C
0
D
0
E
0
F
0
G
0
H
1.0
I
0
GPI
A
0
B
0.167
C
0
D
0
E
0.833
F
0
PGDH
A
0
B
0
C
1.0
D
0
E
0
F
0
GTDH-2
A
0
B
1.0
C
0
D
0
E
0
F
0
G
0
LVP-2
A
0
B
1.0
C
0
D
0
E
0
LPP
A
0
B
0
C
0.500
D
0
E
0.500
F
0
GTDH-1
A
0
B
1.0
Island; 3 Jicarita Island; 4 Coiba Island; 5 Uva Island; 6 Secas
Island; 7 Silva de Afuera Island; and 8 Montuosa Island. See Fig. 2
for geographical reference. LVP-1 and TPI-1 are monomorphic; n
number of individuals
P. varians
3
6
4
4
1
1
0
0.917
0.083
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.083
0
0
0
0.917
5
36
24
7
5
3
8
7
5
0.069
0.222
0.708
0
0
0
0.900
0.100
0
0
0
0.571
0.429
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0.028
0
0
0.014
0.056
0.361
0.542
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.100
0.900
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0.015
0.324
0.044
0.265
0.338
0.015
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
51
10
P. frondifera
2
5
5
3
2
1
6
9
5
7
5
3
8
9
6
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.9000
0.100
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.933
0.067
0
0
0
0.935
0.065
0
0
0
0.944
0.056
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.643
0.357
0
0
0.500
0.250
0
0
0
0.056
0.194
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.100
0
0.467
0.367
0
0
0
0
0.067
0
0
0.864
0.093
0
0
0
0.042
0
0
0
0.667
0.222
0
0
0
0.056
0.056
0
0
0.800
0.200
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.125
0
0.500
0.375
0
0
0.083
0
0.333
0.167
0.417
0.063
0.302
0.083
0
0.552
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.033
0.033
0.933
0
0
0.081
0.027
0
0.892
0
0
0.222
0.056
0
0.722
0
0
0
0.956
0.015
0.029
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.917
0
0.083
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.100
0.200
0.700
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.967
0.033
0
0.066
0.098
0
0.836
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.143
0.619
0.214
0.024
0
0
0
0
0.900
0.100
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.179
0
0.786
0.036
0
0
0.833
0.167
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.633
0
0.300
0.067
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.833
0.167
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.400
0.600
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.167
0
0.667
0
0.167
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.250
0
0.458
0
0.292
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.214
0
0.786
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
distance of 0.068 (1 m.y.a.). No fixed differences were
found between these species. The UPGMA phenogram
shows all populations of P. chiriquiensis grouping
4
15
11
5
77
34
1
40
1
4
1
1
5
2
2
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.750
0.250
0.111
0
0.500
0.389
0
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.500
0.500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.200
0
0
0.800
0
0
0
0.222
0
0.778
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0.222
0
0
0
0.778
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.023
0.136
0
0.091
0.682
0.068
0
0
0.063
0
0.563
0.313
0.063
0
0
0.750
0
0.250
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.444
0.556
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0.821
0.179
0
0
0
0.951
0
0.024
0.024
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0.125
0.250
0.625
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0.500
0
0.500
0
0
0
0
0.056
0.556
0
0.389
0
0
0.009
0.269
0.019
0.435
0.269
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0.222
0.556
0
0.222
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0.031
0.969
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
0
1.0
together before joining the other two species (Fig. 5).
P. varians and P. frondifera did not show independent
clustering (Fig. 5).
434
Fig. 5 Unweighted pair group
method average phenogram using Nei’s unbiased genetic distances (Nei 1978) summarizing
the relationships among 17
populations of three Pavona
species from the Pacific coast of
Panama. See Fig. 2A–D for
locations of collection sites. The
insert to the left summarizes the
species relationships once all
clonemates have been removed
from the analysis
Colony morphology, coloration, and morphometrics
Colony morphology in P. varians is highly variable. It
can be (1) encrusting to slightly massive on basalt rock,
(2) platy or laminar on the skirts of massive colonies, on
coralline and rocky ledges, and in crevices, (3) massive in
reef habitats, on rubble, and soft bottoms, or (4) with
secondary bifacial folia on platy or massive colonies on
soft bottoms. Two or more growth forms may be found
on different parts of the same colony. P. chiriquiensis
and P. frondifera showed little or no variation in colony
morphology. P. chiriquiensis is always encrusting and
deposits a thin veneer of skeleton over the substrate,
mainly basaltic rock. Colonies of P. frondifera are
always encrusting with a compact foliose morphology.
Encrusting colonies of P. varians and P. chiriquiensis
follow the contour of the underlying substrate (from
nearly horizontal to completely vertical). Slightly massive growth forms in P. varians may develop on portions
of the encrusting colonies but rarely reach thicknesses
greater than 10 cm. The platy growth forms of P. varians
have a wedge appearance (i.e., thicker at the attachment
point and gradually decreasing in thickness distally) and
are always unifacial, and the calices are restricted to the
upper surface. Massive colonies may be firmly attached
to the substrata or completely free. Free colonies may
occur as coralliths (Glynn 1974a), dome-shaped colonies, or other irregular shapes with tops showing partial
or total mortality.
Most coralla of P. varians are <30 cm in diameter,
although some encrusting colonies may surpass 2.5 m.
Colonies of P. chiriquiensis are generally small (<0.5 m2)
but may rarely cover up to 10 m2 of substrate. The
largest observed colony of P. frondifera measured only
78 cm in length by 50 cm in width.
The polyps and coenosarc of P. chiriquiensis are light
to dark brown, brick red to brown, or silvery blue and
contrast with the bright white to silvery oral discs and
tentacles (see also Glynn et al. 2001b). This contrast between the coenosarc and oral discs is a diagnostic feature
of the species (Fig. 1B). Silvery blue and brick red colonies of P. chiriquiensis have been observed exclusively at
Iguana Island (site 2, Fig. 2A) and at Silva de Afuera
Island (site 7, Fig. 2D), respectively. Coenosarc, oral
discs, and tentacles of both P. varians and P. frondifera
are usually uniform in color (Fig. 1A, C). The color of P.
varians varies from light to dark brown whereas the tissues of P. frondifera are pink to light or dark brown.
Extremely dark colonies may be found in low-light
habitats, such as crevices or the undersides of ledges.
Canonical variate 1 (CV1) accounted for 83.6% of the
variance. A chi-square analysis of the Wilk’s lambda
showed the two canonical functions to have a significant
discriminating power (P<0.001). CV1 separated P.
chiriquiensis from P. varians and P. frondifera. CV2
separated P. frondifera from P. varians and further separated P. chiriquiensis from P. frondifera. CV1 was most
heavily weighted for maximum calicular diameter (CD1),
corallum thickness (CT), and maximum columellar diameter (CL1). CV2 was most heavily weighted for main
septa length (SL), number of septa (NS1), minimum calicular diameter (CD2), and number of septa reaching the
columella (NS2; see Table 3 for a description of skeletal
characters measured and counted).
435
Differences between two of the three Pavona species
were found in eight of the ten skeletal characters (Table 6). However, no single morphological character was
simultaneously significantly different between all three
species. P. chiriquiensis had significantly larger calicular
and columellar diameters, and thinner corallum thickness than P. varians and P. frondifera (Table 6).
Columellar diameter was smaller and the total number
of septa were significantly lower in P. frondifera
(Table 6).
A discriminant canonical analysis of 19 populations
of Pavona readily separated the three Pavona species in
accordance with morphometric and genetic metrics
(Fig. 6). The jackknife analysis indicated that 91.2% of
all P. varians, 96.7% of P. chiriquiensis, and 90.0% of P.
frondifera were correctly classified by the discriminant
function.
Discussion
Consistent differences in habitat preferences, tissue coloration, skeletal morphology, allozyme patterns, and
reproductive ecology have confirmed the separate specific status of Pavona varians, P. frondifera, and P.
chiriquiensis (Table 7). The congruence of independent
Table 6 Morphometric comparisons of the three Pavona species. Ph P. chiriquiensis, Pv P. varians, Pf P. frondifera. SNK Student–
Newman–Keuls. NS not significant. See Table 3 and Fig. 3 for a description of characters
Character
Code
P. chiriquiensis
Mean±SE
P. varians
Mean±SE
P. frondifera
Mean±SE
P
a posteriori results
of SNK
Maximum calicular diameter
Minimum calicular diameter
Main septa length
Maximum columellar diameter
Minimum columellar diameter
Colline width
Number of septa
Number of septa reaching the columella
Number of septocostae
Corallum thickness
CD1
CD2
SL
CL1
CL2
CW
NS1
NS2
SC
CT
1.85±0.05
1.11±0.04
0.62±0.02
0.34±0.03
0.20±0.02
0.90±0.02
20.02±0.53
7.17±0.16
6.77±0.50
15.14±1.48
1.31±0.03
1.50±0.02
0.47±0.01
0.26±0.01
0.16±0.01
0.50±0.03
19.86±0.62
7.88±0.15
7.08±0.20
55.52±3.64
1.23±0.04
1.04±0.03
0.53±0.02
0.17±0.01
0.12±0.01
0.56±0.05
15.96±0.74
6.73±0.28
6.66±0.80
92.27±11.57
***
***
***
***
***
NS
*
***
NS
***
Ph>Pv, Pf
Ph>Pv, Pf
Ph, Pf>Pv
Ph, Pv>Pf
Ph, Pv>Pf
–
Ph, Pv>Pf
Pv>Ph, Pf
–
Pv, Pf>Ph
* P<0.05; *** P<0.001
Fig. 6 Canonical discriminant
function scores for P. varians,
P. chiriquiensis, and P. frondifera. Note that polygons enclosing all individuals of the same
species show little overlap
except for P. varians and
P. frondifera, which are the
most similar genetically. Stars
represent group centroids.
Corallite detail is shown for all
species (Scales in mm)
436
characters has been shown to be a compelling argument
to support species separations in scleractinian corals
(Knowlton et al. 1992; Szmant et al. 1997).
This study has also validated the use of traditional
morphological analyses in the genus Pavona. However,
members of this genus have posed some difficulties, as
have members of the genus Leptoseris (see Dinesen
1980). Both genera belong to the family Agariciidae,
which is characterized by thamnasteroid corallites (Wells
1956; Veron and Pichon 1979). These corallites lack a
well-defined wall, making calicular measurements dependent upon one’s designation of the corallite border.
Calicular diameter can be more easily estimated in those
corallites located within collines. However, these corallites in general have a larger number of septa than those
in open areas because many septocostae are inserted
within the corallite.
Macro-morphology is not a good character for distinguishing species boundaries among these three Pavona species. This is particularly true for P. varians, a
species with high phenotypic plasticity. Even within a
single colony it is possible to find three or four different
growth forms that appear to reflect micro-habitat differences. In the western Pacific coral Pavona cactus
Forskål, 1775 (Forskål 1775), there is a strong associa-
tion between genotype and growth form (Ayre and
Willis 1988). Although this type of association has not
been investigated in Panamanian P. varians, this does
not appear to be the case for this species, since multiple
morphologies are found within a single colony. In contrast, P. chiriquiensis and P. frondifera appear to show
little intraspecific variation, perhaps in part related to
the narrower habitat preferences of these species. Skeletal plasticity similar to that observed in P. varians has
also been observed in other coral species such as Montastraea spp. (Budd 1993), and Pocillopora damicornis
(Veron and Pichon 1976).
An important result of this study is the agreement
between the reproductive findings and the allozyme data. Pavona varians and P. chiriquiensis were shown to be
reproductively isolated in sympatry, both in terms of
timing of spawning and gamete characteristics (Glynn
et al. 2000; this study). Also, the genetic data indicate
that P. chiriquiensis is clearly distinct from both P.
varians and P. frondifera, and that P. varians differs less
strongly from P. frondifera. The levels of divergence
observed between species (0.068–0.434) are consistent
with that reported for congeneric pairs of invertebrates
(Thorpe 1983), as well as for other coral species (Weil
and Knowlton 1994).
Table 7 Species characteristics for Panamanian P. varians, P. chiriquiensis, and P. frondifera
Character
P. varians
Growth morphology
Thick and compact branching,
Always encrusting, rarely
encrusting on substrate
with massive build-up;
thin veneer of skeleton
Pink to brown; polyps, oral disc,
Light to dark brown,
Light to dark brown; polyps,
tentacles, and coenosarc
oral disc, tentacles, and
red-brick to brown, silvery blue
of uniform coloration
coenosarc of uniform coloration to brown; mouths and
tentacles always white to silvery
Dawn spawner, 1 h before
Sunset spawner, 1 h after sunset; Unknown
sunrise; eggs in mucus
clouds of eggs and sperm
strings; clouds of sperm
White to beige eggs,
Unknown
Dark green eggs, 100.3±2.4 lm;
105.2±2.3 lm; positively
neutrally to negatively buoyant;
buoyant; eggs without
eggs without zooxanthellae
zooxanthellae
Coloration
Spawning characteristics
Gamete characteristics
Distribution
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Chiriquı́
Other areas
Habitat
Depth range
Colline type
Corallite series
From Baker (1999)
P. frondifera
Massive, encrusting, platy
or laminar, rolling stone
Abundant to rare depending
on site
Common to rare depending
on site
Indo-west Pacific
Reef, rocky substrata, soft
sediments (coarse sand–muddy)
Shallow to deep, 1–16.7 m
Short or long collines, uniform;
collines one or many corallites
in width
Most commonly >4; may reach
17 in skirt platy growth forms
Calice diameter (mean±SE) 0.825–2.11 mm (1.37±0.04)
Number of septa (mean)
13–36 (20)
C1
Zooxanthella cladea
Corallum thickness
27–110 mm
a
P. chiriquiensis
Rare at the two sites found
Abundant to rare depending
on site
Restricted to the eastern Pacific
Almost exclusively on basalt;
only four specimens found
on reefs
Shallow to deep, 3–15.1 m
Short collines, mostly irregular;
many hydnophorae; collines
commonly one corallite
in width, rarely more than
two corallites in width
Commonly 2–4; in rare
occasions may reach 5–7
1.25–2.32 mm (1.91±0.07)
10–28 (21)
C1
5–40 mm
Present at only one locality,
a single clone
Extremely rare; found at just
two sites
Indo-west Pacific
Almost exclusively a reef species;
two specimens found on soft
bottom
Mostly shallow, 3.5–13 m
Generally long collines; collines
in general one corallite in width
Commonly >5; may reach 16
0.95–1.42 mm (1.25±0.03)
14–18 (16)
C1
45–157 mm
437
The use of electrophoretic data to identify precisely
even completely reproductively isolated species may only
be possible if the species have evolved some ‘‘fixed’’
allelic differences at one or more loci (Richardson et al.
1986). These reproductively isolated taxa will, in time,
accumulate additional fixed genetic differences (Knowlton and Weigt 1997). The fixed and the two nearly fixed
differences between P. varians and P. chiriquiensis confirm that these species are indeed reproductively isolated
distinct species in the biological sense (Mayr 1970). It
has been suggested that some reproductively isolated
taxa may exhibit only small levels of genetic differentiation due to a recent origin, slow rates of molecular
evolution, or large population sizes (McFadden 1999).
This may be the case for P. frondifera, but additional
studies are needed on its reproductive biology and other
life-history characteristics.
The reproductive patterns observed in P. varians and
P. chiriquiensis suggest likely mechanisms underlying the
maintenance of species boundaries by extreme prezygotic barriers to successful fertilization (both temporal
and gamete characteristics). Differences in reproductive
timing or in gamete recognition systems that control
fertilization have been recognized as the most likely
barriers to reproduction among octocorals in the Alcyonium coralloides complex (McFadden 1999). Similarly, dilution (increasing with time), duration of gamete
viability (decreasing with time), and egg–sperm contact
time have been reported to reduce fertilization success in
other marine organisms with external fertilization
(Levitan et al. 1991; Oliver and Babcock 1992; Palumbi
1994; Szmant et al. 1997; Willis et al. 1997; Maté et al.
1998), thus minimizing interspecific hybridization.
Knowlton et al. (1997) noted that a difference in
spawning times of just 1–2 h was sufficient to maintain
reproductive isolation between Montastraea franksi and
M. annularis on the Caribbean coast of Panama. Thus,
spawning in P. varians and P. chiriquiensis, being out of
phase by more than 12 h, should prevent successful
fertilization under field conditions.
Dawn spawners are rare in corals and may be restricted to the genus Pavona. P. cactus on the Great
Barrier Reef (Marshall and Stephenson 1933) and P.
varians in Panama (this study) are the only dawn
spawners known to date. Even though P. varians and P.
chiriquiensis spawn near extreme high-water stands, the
eggs of P. chiriquiensis are negatively buoyant, possibly
facilitating retention on the reef during peak spring tides
(Babcock et al. 1986). However, the eggs of P. varians
are positively buoyant, and thus likely to be dispersed
off-reef. Thus, the characteristics of the gametes may
possibly help explain the distributional patterns of both
species.
Colonies of P. cactus with the same genotype have
been shown to be separated by distances of up to 93 m
(Ayre and Willis 1988). This lack of genetic variation is
consistent with an asexual reproductive mode (Ayre and
Willis 1988; McFadden 1999). Populations of species
with asexual reproduction are often dominated locally
by individuals belonging to one or a few clones (Wright
1969; Jain 1976; Suomaleinen et al. 1976; Baur and
Klemm 1989). From the allozyme data of P. frondifera
at Saboga Island (Gulf of Panama), the 40 colonies
studied were genetically identical and thus probably
asexually produced.
Allozyme patterns in P. varians and P. chiriquiensis
also provide evidence of the presence for clonal reproduction within populations. Most of the collections for
allozyme work were completed before the 1997–1998 El
Niño event. At that time, adjacent colonies were
considered to have recruited sexually on the basaltic
substrata. However, six colonies monitored at Uva Island (Gulf of Chiriquı́) before, during, and after the
1997–1998 El Niño event suggested that these adjacent
colonies were surviving fragments of a larger colony that
probably suffered partial mortality in previous disturbances. Colonies that ranged in size from 1.5 to 7 m in
length suffered massive mortalities during the 1997–1998
El Niño and produced 10–115 isolated fragments each,
some close to each other, some farther apart. Although
this hypothesis of clonality by partial colony mortality
may seem feasible for P. chiriquiensis, it is less likely for
P. varians. Coral mortality in P. varians during the
1982–1983 and 1997–1998 El Niño events was low and
limited to the upper surfaces and did not fragment larger
colonies into smaller ones. The activities of predatory
fishes that feed on boring Lithophaga bivalves may
provide an alternative explanation for P. varians. Fish
like Pseudobalistes naufragium Jordan and Starks and
Balistes polylepis Steindachner have been observed to
remove chunks of skeleton from Pavona varians in
search of those bivalves (see Glynn et al. 1972, Fig. 12,
p. 503). These broken fragments may survive and later
grow larger colonies in relatively close proximity to their
parent colony.
The high sensitivity of P. chiriquiensis to warm waters
that accompanied the 1997–1998 El Niño is compared to
that of fire corals in the genus Millepora (Glynn 1990;
Glynn and Feingold 1992; Glynn et al. 2001a, b).
However, the ability of P. chiriquiensis to recover from
this disturbance surpasses that of the fire corals. Five
years after the event, most of the colonies of P. chiriquiensis had increased considerably in size, approximating colony sizes before the disturbance (see Table 7
in Glynn et al. 2001a). Millepora colonies, however, had
not yet recovered (Glynn et al. 2001a). Reef-building
corals maintain an obligate association with endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. However, not until recently has the
importance of this symbiosis, in terms of zooxanthellae
diversity, been recognized as a possible determinant of
coral zonation (Rowan and Knowlton 1995) and coral
bleaching (Rowan et al. 1997). Whereas in the Caribbean coral genus Montastraea bleaching differences can
be attributed to the zooxanthella genotypes they harbor,
bleaching in Panamanian Pavona cannot be attributed
to differences in the symbionts hosted since the species
harbor the same type (clade C1) of symbiont (Baker
1999; Glynn et al. 2001a). Thus, zooxanthella genetic
438
diversity does not appear to impart ecological or taxonomic differences between these Pavona species.
Although tissue colors are considered the most
common ‘‘live coral’’ trait mentioned by systematists
(Lang 1984), in most species diagnoses this trait is
omitted. Glynn et al. (2001b) showed that tissue coloration is a diagnostic field character for P. chiriquiensis.
The validity of this character has been confirmed by the
present study. All specimens observed in Panama had
dark polyps and coenosarc, and contrasting bright white
to silvery oral discs and tentacles. Other coral species
descriptions that have included tissue coloration as a
diagnostic character include those of Scolymia spp.
(Lang 1971) and Mycetophillia spp. (Wells 1973).
In terms of species distributions, the case of P. chiriquiensis may be the most interesting one. The distribution of this species in Panama may suggest the preference
for year-round warm habitats (it is common in the Gulf
of Chiriquı́ but rare in the Gulf of Panama). However,
this species is also abundant in the relatively cool waters
of the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 2001b). It is possible that the distributional pattern of this species may be
related to the peak reproductive season from January to
June (Glynn et al. 2000) when the Gulf of Panama experiences cold (16–25C) seasonal upwelling (Glynn and
Maté 1997). Although the low water temperatures may
not be that critical for the survival of adult colonies, they
may affect fecundity and larval survival, becoming a
physical barrier for the expansion of the species into the
Gulf of Panama. In the Galápagos Islands, the peak of
the reproductive season occurs from January to May
(Glynn et al. 2000), which spans the warmest months of
the year there (Podestá and Glynn 1997). This may explain the high abundance of the species at several localities within the Galápagos Islands. Still, we do not know
how the species got established there, nor why P. varians
with its reproductive peak at the same time as P. chiriquiensis is abundant in the Gulf of Panama.
Corals can compete for space by direct and indirect
means (Jackson and Hughes 1985). Direct interactions,
such as those observed in the Caribbean coral genus
Scolymia (see Lang 1973), normally involve an aggressive
behavior wherein the dominant colony or species digests
the tissues of the subordinate neighbor. In contrast, indirect interactions involve the growth of one colony
above another, depriving it of light or food (Connell
1973). P. varians and P. chiriquiensis exhibited both
types of interactions. During the direct interaction
phase, P. chiriquiensis is able to digest rapidly the tissues
of P. varians (within 1 day). In the longer term, however,
P. varians is able indirectly to outcompete P. chiriquiensis
by overtopping it. Similar reversals have been observed
between P. gigantea Verrill, 1869 (Verrill 1869) and
Pocillopora damicornis Linnaeus in Panama (see Wellington 1980). In the laboratory, Pavona frondifera is the
subordinate species of the three herein tested. In conclusion, P. varians, P. chiriquiensis, and P. frondifera are
three distinct species that show clear differences in almost
all of the characters considered in this study.
Acknowledgements I would especially like to thank N. Budd, L.
D’Croz, P.W. Glynn, H. Guzmán, J.B.C. Jackson, J. Leal, H.
Lessios, N. Knowlton, B. Vargas-Ángel, and S. Williams, who
offered helpful discussions during this work. Most of this work
was accomplished at the Naos Marine Laboratory facilities of the
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) in the Republic
of Panama. The government of Panama granted permission for
coral collections through the Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente
(ANAM). Material for this work was collected during several
cruises to study sites in Panama. I am grateful for assistance offered in the field by the captains and crews of the R.V. ‘‘Urracá.’’
Field assistance was kindly given by A. Armitage, A. Baker, O.
Barrio, J. Borger, A. Calderón, R. Cohen, S.B. Colley, M. Eakin,
P. Fong, C. Hueerkamp, M. Medina, J.B. Del Rosario, J. Jara, E.
Peña, D.R. Robertson, F. Rodrı́guez, J. Smith, T. Smith and A.
Velarde. For assistance with laboratory work, I would like to
thank M. Calderón, A. Domingo, E. Gómez, I. Hernández, and
E. Peña. For providing access to specimens from museums,
thanks are due E. Lazo-Wasem, Peabody Museum of Natural
History, Yale University; S.D. Cairns, U.S. National Museum of
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution; N. Voss, Division of
Marine Biology and Fisheries, University of Miami; M.B.
Goodwin, Museum of Paleontology, University of California,
Berkeley. Thanks to N. Budd, L. D’Croz, P.W. Glynn, H. Guzmán, J.B.C. Jackson, and N. Knowlton for providing working
space. Financial support comes from the U.S. National Science
Foundation Grant OCE-9711529 (and earlier awards to P.W.
Glynn), STRI, and Smithsonian Institution predoctoral fellowship, the PADI Project Aware Foundation, the Sigma Xi Society,
the Lerner-Gray Fund for Marine Research (American Museum
of Natural History), and the Founders Research Award and an
Anonymous Donor Award, both from the Rosenstiel School of
Marine and Atmospheric Science.
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