Available online freely at www.isisn.org
Bioscience Research
Print ISSN: 1811-9506 Online ISSN: 2218-3973
Journal by Innovative Scientific Information & Services Network
REVIEW ARTICLE
BIOSCIENCE RESEARCH, 2017 14(3): 558-565.
OPEN ACCESS
Physiological stresses and phyto-hormones: Effects
on the flowering process and longevity of
bougainvillea
Mohammad Saifuddin1, Mohammad Moneruzzaman Khandaker2 Majrashi Ali
Abdullah3 Khairil Mahmud2 and Mohammad Hailmi Sajili2
1
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
School of Agriculture Science & Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal
Abidin, Besut Campus, 22200 Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
3
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia.
2
.*Correspondence: moneruzzaman@unisza.edu.my.Accepted: 19 June. 2017 Published online: 30 Sep. 2017
A wide variety trait of Bougainvillea genus has made it a decent potential as a new ornamental plant.
Different type of foliage, many inflorescence, continuous bloom, first growing and short production cycle
of bougainvillea plants that make them attractive to the floriculture industry. Therefore, the longevity of
flowers and leaves are crucial nowadays. Apart from the external appearance, the length of their vaselife has become one of the most important criteria in evaluating their quality. Petal colour and its
variations also regulate the acceptance of flowers in high competitive flower market. Several researches
have been carried out throughout the world on how to improve flower size, petal colour, flower bloom
cycle and flower longevity. Many horticultural techniques have been conducted for different flowering
and ornamental plants but there is very few literatures are found on flower quality and longevity of
bougainvillea. Therefore, few methods such as physiological stresses and phyto-hormone spraying to
enhance plant growth, development, flowering process and longevity of bougainvillea have been
discussed in this review article
Keywords: Bougainvillea, Pruning, Phyto-hormone, Flowering process, Longevity
INTRODUCTION
Bougainvillea is a flowering plant genus which
belongs to the family of Nyctaginaceae and
native in South America (Saifuddin et al. 2010).
Suxia et al. (2009) reported that bougainvillea
have eighteen species and all the species
generally used in beautification for the arid
landscapes,
agriculture,
horticulture,
environmental industries and pharmaceutical
industries, on account of the large flexibility in
different agro climatic regions of the world.
Recently, it has been reported that bougainvillea
is a pollution tolerant plant and can help in the
mitigation of air pollution causes of greenhouse
gases. Therefore, bougainvillea plants are
recommended to planting in urban and industrial
areas where the air and sound pollution is very
high. The plant can easily adapt to various
growing condition and it can be planted in polluted
soil, central verge, traffic island, and various other
industrial and ecotourism places (Kulshreshtha et
al. 2009). As its massive scope, introduction and
variation of bract color and size are highly
preferable.
It has been stated that environmental factors
revealing seasonal changes and create significant
effect to control the flowering (Ana et al. 2004).
Intensity of light, day length, temperature, nutrient
Saifuddin et al.
Horticultural techniques on quality of Bougainvillea
availability and stress are the most important
environmental factors that influence the flowering
of plants. With regards to light, the quality,
quantity and duration are all important variables
that can regulate the flowering. Stirling et al.
(2002) reported that temperatures are perceived
in different parts of the plant during the control of
flowering photoperiod.
Some other besides environmental factors,
has been found to stimulate flowering or frequent
flowering such as plant growth regulators, growth
promoting chemicals, removal of young leaves,
girdling, pruning, dwarfing and different stress
(Saifuddin et al. 2009a). Recently, it has been
stated that the foliar spray of 1-Triacontanol
stimulates growth, enhances flowering, and
improves the quality of potted Bougainvillea plants
(Khandaker et al. 2013) In most experiments, the
best results have been achieved with application
of GA3 mixture along with some additional
treatments, girdling, root pruning, fertilization and
water stress (Saifuddin et al. 2009a).
Physiological stresses on plants life and
flower Initiation: Impact of pruning on plants
life
Pruning can be used to improve tree shape, to
influence its growth, flowering and fruitfulness, to
improve fruit quality, to repair injury, to contain the
plant and to increase light and spray penetration
(Jean et al. 2007). The ultimate goal of pruning is
to improve light distribution so that more tree
canopies would maintain high quality flowers and
fruits production. In recent years, flower growers
and pomologists have been interested in pruning
as a mean of growth control when dwarfing
rootstocks do not adequately control tree size.
Bougainvillea plants respond well to pruning. The
shoots of the plants grow vigorously that why
regular pruning and thinning is necessary to
shape and direct the plant growth. Kent et al.
(2007) reported that pruning should be carried out
immediately after flowering because pruning
promote the new growth which next flush of
flowers would occur.
It has been reported that pruning stimulated
many metabolic sinks that may cause depletion of
reserved carbohydrates flowing from lower plant
parts to the new developing flower buds
(Salakpetch et al. 1990). Low carbohydrate
content was adequate to stimulate the new
flowering shoots in both pruned and non-pruned
plants. It was also reported that pruned plants
have a higher turgor than the non-pruned plants.
An offset benefit of a smaller canopy might be the
reduced canopy of water consumption and
improved tree water status due to a lower canopy
transpiration. A reduction in canopy leaf area
whether occurs naturally or artificially by pruning,
was expected to raise new leaf, soil water
potentials and reduce loss of water (Khan et al.
1998).
Flowering ornamental plant bougainvillea can
be pruned at any time of the year. Initiation of
flower depends upon pruning of the plant and bud
formation cycle followed by a certain period after
pruned. In winter season, a hard pruning is
recommended to prepare the plant for indoor
condition. For maintain continuous blooming of
bougainvillea need to do soft pruning. Gordon
(2002) reported that vine type bougainvillea plant
continue to grow outward without sending out side
branches from each leaf-bud point unless the
stem is pinched. Johnson et al. (1993) stated that
flowering and vegetative growth of plant can be
modified by training and pruning. Pruning also
regulated the position of flower with regard to
vegetative growth, e.g. heading cuts may
Delaying Flower Drop
Flower longevity or vase life is the most
important character that affects the commercial
value of flowers or other ornamental plants
(Saifuddin et al. 2009b). Commercial value of
flowers could be improved by lengthening the
longevity of flower and improving its quality in
such as petal color and size (Tjosvold et al. 1994).
Vase life of flower is related to petal and leaf
senescence, and it is caused by rapid production
of ethylene after harvesting from the mother plant
(Serek et al. 2006). Sometimes, microbial
infection, bacterial colonization and air embolisms
also affect the vase life of flowers. Application of
GA3 and ethylene inhibitor hormone NAA
individually or its combination in low concentration
at the different developing stages, flowering time
and transported periods increased the longevity of
flowers (Hye and William, 2009). Therefore, the
effect of hormone spray, pruning and shading on
the plant growth, flowering process as well as
biochemical and physiological changes of
bougainvillea plant need to be discussed to
promote flower size and delay flowers drop. The
objectives of this review paper are to discuss the
flowering
process
and
consequently
its
appreciable longevity by applying physiological
stresses and phyto-hormones.
Bioscience Research, 2017 volume 14(3): 558-565
559
Saifuddin et al.
Horticultural techniques on quality of Bougainvillea
dissociate flowering from vegetative parts by
stimulate vegetative growth in the outer canopy of
the tree and enhanced flower bud formation in
inner canopy (Calatayud et al. 2002). This might
have deleterious effects on flowers and fruits
quality.
Figure 1. Different type of girdling or phloemic stress affect flowering behaviour of plant
(Adopted from Khandaker et al. 2012)
Impact of phloemic stress on plants life
There are so many horticultural techniques
that are involved in making dwarfed trees.
Partially ringed bark strip is an important
technique among them. Ringing or removal of
bark as is a horticultural practice used to
manipulate tree physiology, growth, and fruit
formation in a variety of fruit species. Dwarfed,
compact, or small size trees provide for easier
pruning, thinning, spraying, fertilizer application,
control of insect pest, harvesting, quality fruit and
less cost of production. It has been reported that
phloemic stress treatments decreased the
vegetative growth and increase the flowering in
mango (Jose, 1997). A higher trunk circumference
above the girdle may be caused by swelling of the
trunk due to the accumulation of carbohydrates
(Onguso et al. 2004). They also reported that
ringing or phloemic stress blocked the
translocation of sucrose from leaf to root through
the phloem bundles. However, in unfavorable
condition a severe girdling from the stems killed
the plants and partial phloemic stress weakened
the plants growth and development. Khandaker et
al. (2012) reported that different types of girdling
or phloemic stress improve the quality of plant
parts by increasing colour and accumulation of dry
matter in leaf, flower and fruits. Bark ringing
tended to dwarf the tree, induced flower bud
formation, and promoted fruiting in peach trees
(Hossain, 2006). It has been also reported that
girdling applied before flowering enhanced
inflorescence development and quality of fruits
(Khandaker et al. 2011).
Hormonal effects on Bougainvillea: Impacts of
GA3
Gibberellic acid (GA3) application also has the
potential to control vegetative growth, flowering
and enhance earliness. GA3 treatment increased
length of petiole and leaf area of strawberry.
Several researcher reported that application of
GA3 stimulate flowering in a wide range of plant
species. Many species that flower early in
response to both GA3 and long days or
vernalization, raising the possibility that GA3 may
be involved in these responses. This response to
exogenous GA3 is paralleled to the effect of
photoperiod and vernalization on GA3 metabolism.
Gibberellins played a role in floral initiation and
development. The buds on the upper surface of
the tuber uptake more gibberellin than the other
surfaces. At higher gibberellin concentration and
treatment duration increased the proportion of
shoots that initiated inflorescences. It has been
reported that gibberellin increased in the
proportion of initiated flowers that subsequently
emerged and the proportion of axillary buds that
initiated flowers.
It was also found that the percentage of
changed flower colors was altered in the
subsequent clonal generation vis-à-vis the effect
also diminished with the passage of time. GA plus
Bioscience Research, 2017 volume 14(3): 558-565
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Saifuddin et al.
Horticultural techniques on quality of Bougainvillea
kinetin also had a significant effect on improving
flower longevity at the mature (fully colored) bud,
but produced a lesser effect when applied to
green immature buds. It has been reported that
sucrose and kinetin application increased flower
quality and increased the vase life and
Bougainvillea flower (Moneruzzaman et al. 2010a)
S.No
1
Growth
regulators
GA3
Effects
References
2
GA3
3
GA3
Development of stamens and petals during flower
development and expansion
Reduced the time needed for flower emergence,
promote flowering and increased the number of
flower buds and bloom flowers
Stimulated more rapid flowering
Saifuddin et al. 2009a
4
GA3
Increase the number and size of flower
5
GA3
Sharma and Room, 2009
Brooking and Cohen,
2002.
Ogale et al. 2000
Enhanced the early flowering and decreased the
Xingjun et al. 2003
number of leaf
6
GA3
Blooming rate of Bougainvillea
Khandaker et al. 2015
7
GA3
Increased hydrolysis of starch and sucrose into
Fernfindez et al. 1997
glucose and fructose which are utilized by flowers
for opening of disc floret.
8
Kinetin
Increased flower bud formation and improved the
Moneruzzaman et al.
longevity of Bougainvillea flower
2010b
9
1-Triacontanol
Stimulate the flowering and increased the size of
Khandaker et al. 2013
Bougainvillea bract
10
GA3
Increased the flowering, fruit formation and
Moneruzzaman et al.
colour development
2011a
Table 1: Effects of growth regulators on flower formation, flower quality and longevity
Figure 2: Effect of different concentration GA3 on blooming rate of Bougainvillea (Adopted
from Khandaker et al. 2015)
Bioscience Research, 2017 volume 14(3): 558-565
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Saifuddin et al.
Horticultural techniques on quality of Bougainvillea
Figure 3: Effect of different concentration GA3 on bract size of Bougainvillea (Adopted from
Khandaker et al. 2015)
also one of the natural occuring plant growth
Flower composed of several floral parts, is a
regulatory substances (PGRS) or famously known
heterogonous organ and all this floral part are in
as phytohormones (Bleecker and Kende, 2000).
different physiological stages. Gibberellin present
This simplest carbon atom compound is a
at different concentrations in different floral parts
dominant regulator of plant growth, metabolism,
of same flower. It has been reported that GA3
and interacting with other plant growth regulators
significantly increased the number of disc florets
in trace amounts. Ethylene is the key
but decreased the dry matter content in flower
phytohormone in promoting senescence in cut
heads and stems.
flowers and causes fruit ripening. This directly
It also been reported that removal of young leaf
reduces quality and display life of flowers.
and cytokinin treatment promote the flower bud
Ethylene was a natural plant product where it
development and increased the bract quality of
could induce senescence in plants. Ethylene also
Bougainvillea (Moneruzzaman et al. 2010b).
play a significant role in regulating the physical,
Turgidity maintenance is an important technique
biochemical and cellular changes that constitute
in lengthening of shelf life of gerbera cut flowers.
the post-pollination syndrome in Phalaeopsis
Xingjun et al. (2003) reported that carbohydrates
(Beatriz and James, 2008). It acts by inhibiting
content and dry weight of petals are decline at the
respiration, decreasing cell wall material and
final stages of flower development. Besides
lipids, and increasing sugar levels of the plants. In
horticultural
techniques,
genetic
and
general, it appears to hasten senescence plant
environmental factors also affect the flowering
organs and accelerate the abscission process
behavior
of
several
ornamental
plants
(Redman et al. 2002).
(Moneruzzaman et al. 2011)
Investigation by other researchers also proved
Emongor (2004) stated that gibberellins
that ethylene production increased during flower
increase hydrolysis of starch and sucrose into
senescence and ethylene accelerates flower
glucose and fructose, which were utilized by the
senescence (Celikel et al. 2002). It is devidid into
flowers for floret opening and expansion of petal.
three phases which corresponds to the three
Naphthalene Acetic Acid in presence of GA3
phases of senescence. The first phases is the
delayed bract abscission and color fading of
pre-climacteric phase, the concentration of
bougainvillea bract because of increased the
ethyene metabolized by the tissues is extremely a
hydrolysis of TSS by GA3 which delayed petal
little and the respiration rate is a stable (Kosugi et
senescence and color fading. Zhu and Davies
al. 2000). Ethylene production occurus in all plant
(1997) stated that may be NAA to interact with
organs including flower but the magnitude of its
GA3 and hence delaying the abscission of flower
production varies and depends of growth and
by either delaying the natural rise in ethylene
development process. Recent scientific process
production or by altering the sensitivity of the
has made clear the understanding of biosynthetic
tissue to ethylene or both.
pathway and enzymes involment in ethylene
Ethylene effects on flowers longevity
production (Kenza et al. 2000).This autocatalytic
effect of ethylene could be very pronouced and
A number of developmental factors regulate the
lead to loss of quality during transporation and
ethylene production and it can be induced by
storage (Van Door, 2001). The vase life of
many physiological, chemical and environmental
bougainvillea flowers could be extended by silver
stressess during germination, growth, senescence
thiosulfate (STS), an inhibitor of ethylene action
of leaf and flowers and ripening of fruits. Besides
(Chang and Chen, 2001). Their findings
acting as a plant hormone influencing many
suggested that ethylene regulated sepal
aspects of plant growth and development, it is
Bioscience Research, 2017 volume 14(3): 558-565
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Saifuddin et al.
Horticultural techniques on quality of Bougainvillea
abscission in bougainvillea. Patterson and
Bleecker (2004) reported that abscission is a
typical ethylene response that is alleged by
ethylene receptors and is regulated by mutations
in ethylene receptor genes. Flower longevity is
one of the most important traits of ornamental
plants and the lengthening of longevity is an
ongoing target for plant breeders and horticulturist
(Onozaki et al. 2001).
pattern were discussed on Bougainvillea spp. It
can be concluded based on the current research
review, soft frequent pruning is the effective
methods to induce frequent flowering and prolong
vase life of bougainvillea bract. Exogenous
applications of GA3 increase bract size and
prolong the vase life of Bougainvillea.
Synthetic auxin- NAA as ethylene inhibitor
For preventing the deteriorative effect of ethylene
on postharvest behavior of ornamental plants a
range of methods and chemicals is used.
Interfering with the plant response to ethylene can
be achieved by inhibition of plants own ethylene
production inhibition, blocking the binding of
ethylene to its receptor and blocking the plant’s
reaction to the binding of ethylene to the receptor.
Common used chemical is silver thiosulfate (STS)
but its toxicity is high. Now, another chemical,
naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) is mostly used due
to its low toxicity level (Dimitrios et al. 2008).
It has been reported that leaf chlorophyll content,
net photosynthetic rate and drymatter content of
wax apple plant leaves increased significantly with
NAA application (Khandaker et al. 2015). All of
these improved physiological activities play a
significant role to promote flowering and longevity
in the plant. Foliar application of NAA increased
the flowering and fruit number of tomato plants.
Khandaker et al. (2017) reported that application
of 25 mg/L NAA improved the plant physiological
activities and stimulate flowering as well as flower
number of Mokara Chark Kuan orchid flowers.
Normanly (1997) reported that the regulatory
effects of plant hormone depend on the stage of
plant development. NAA treatments also prevent
the sprouting of stems and bulb of ornamental
plants. Chang and Chen (2001) reported that
application NAA at the cut tip of ornamental plants
suppressed the growth of lateral bud and this
adaption is manipulated to cultivate beautiful
ornamental plants.
CONCLUSION
Growth manipulating techniques are being
constantly changed and improved to meet the
demands of individual species and cultivars of
flowering plants. Each flowering plant needs a
specific approach, and at the same time it should
be as simple as possible. In this current research,
the effect of growth regulators such as gibberellic
acid (GA3) and NAA and the plant manipulation
tactic by heading pruning to improve the flowering
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declared that present study was
performed and published in absence of any
conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
The authors thank to Research Management,
Innovation & Commercialization Centre (RMIC)
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA),
Terengganu, Malaysia for publication support
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Designed the review paper MS and MMK. Wrote
the paper MS and MMK. Reviewed and edited the
paper KM and MHS. All authors read and
approved the final version.
Copyrights: © 2017 @ author (s).
This is an open access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
prvided the original author(s) and source are credited
and that the original publication in this journal is
cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted
which does not comply with these terms.
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