… Thomas, Alivereti Naikatini, Conway Pene Photographs: Nunia Thomas, Aaron Jenkins, Baravi Thaman, Gilianne Brodie, Elia Nakoro, Art Whistler, Visheshni …

Elia Nakoro

Summary The Republic of Fiji shares with other independent Pacific Island Countries a globally unique situation in which most of the territory is under customary ownership. While this situation originally represented a considerable challenge to European models of protected area establishment, the past 15 years have seen a proliferation of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs) mainly in marine and coastal areas where they are known as Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs).

Executive Summary In 2005 at the Barbados Plan of Action in Mauritius, the Fiji Government made a commitment to effectively manage and finance at least 30% of Fiji's inshore marine areas by 2020. Given that much of the planning for inshore marine management is undertaken by partners of the Fiji Locally Managed Marine Area (FLMMA) network, this study was undertaken to evaluate whether the expansion through the FLMMA network could achieve national conservation objectives by 2020. The work was completed as part of a ...

Herbarium he RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment is published by: Conservation International Center for Applied Biodiversity Science 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500 Arlington, VA 22202 USA 703-341-2400 telephone 703-979-0953 fax www.conservation.org www.biodiversityscience.org Editor: Clare Morrison Design: Patrick Pikacha Maps: Nunia homas, Alivereti Naikatini, Conway Pene Photographs: Nunia homas, Aaron Jenkins, Baravi haman, Gilianne Brodie, Elia Nakoro, Art Whistler, Visheshni Chandra RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment Series Editors: Jennifer McCullough and Leeanne E. Alonso ISBN: # 978-1-934151-38-9 © by Conservation International All rights reserved. Conservation International is a private, non-proit organization exempt from federal income tax under section 501 c(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. he designations of geographical entities in this publication, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Conservation International or its supporting organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Any opinions expressed in the RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment are those of the writers and do not necessarily relect those of Conservation International or its co-publishers. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment was formerly RAP Working Papers. Numbers 1 – 13 of this series were published under the previous title. Suggested citation: Morrison, C. and Nawadra, S. (ed.). 2009. A rapid biodiversity assessment of the Nakauvadra Highlands, Ra Province, Fiji. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 57. Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA. Cover photos: Top: Nakauvadra Range (Alivereti Naikatini) Bottom left: Fiji Ground Frog, Platymantis vitianus (Baravi haman) Bottom right: Fiji Golden Dove, Chrysoenas luteovirens (Baravi haman) Table of Contents Participants and Authors..............................................5 Organizational Proiles..................................................7 Chapter 7…………………………………………............76 Freshwater macro-invertebrates of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Acknowledgements.....................................................10 Report at a Glance.......................................................11 Executive Summary.....................................................14 Chapter 8……………………………………….…...........81 Insects of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Hilda Waqa-Sakiti Chapters Chapter 9…………………………………………............87 Freshwater ish and water quality of two catchments in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Aaron Jenkins Chapter 1......................................................................36 Botanical survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler Chapter 10…………………………………………..........92 Cultural survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Sepeti Matararaba and Elia Nakoro Chapter 2 .....................................................................43 Herpetofauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Nunia Thomas Appendices Maps and Photos.........................................................23 Chapter 3......................................................................52 Preliminary baseline survey of the avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Dick Watling Chapter 4......................................................................60 Bats of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Alivereti Naikatini Chapter 5......................................................................64 Invasive mammal fauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Jone Niukula Chapter 6…………………………………………............70 Preliminary observations of terrestrial gastropods of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Appendix 1...................................................................96 Checklist of the vascular plant lora of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler Appendix 2.................................................................113 Tree plot data from the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler Appendix 3................................................... Geographical positions of sites surveyed for herpetofauna in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Nunia Thomas Appendix 4................................................... Details of frogs captured during herpetological surveys in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Nunia Thomas Appendix 5.................................................. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 3 Table of Contents Freshwater invertebrate taxa found at each site during surveys of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Appendix 6.................................................. Sites of interest for terrestrial insects in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Hilda Waqa-Sakiti Appendix 7.................................................. Water quality and habitat characteristics of sampling sites in the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa Rivers, Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Aaron Jenkins 4 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Participants and Authors Gilianne Brodie (terrestrial gastropods, freshwater macro-invertebrates) Biology Division Faculty of Science, Technology and the Environment University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: brodie_g@usp.ac.j Aaron Jenkins and Kinikoto Mailautoka (freshwater ish, water quality) Wetlands International – Oceania (Fiji) C/- Marine Studies Program University of the South Paciic Suva, FIJI. Email: apjenkins@wetlands-oceania.org Sepeti Matararaba (archaeology/cultural signiicance) Department of Pre-history Archaeology he Fiji Museum hurston Gardens P.O. Box 2023 Suva, FIJI Alifereti Naikatini (bats, plants) South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: naikatini_a@usp.ac.j Elia Nakoro (archaeology/cultural signiicance) Department of Historical Archaeology he Fiji Museum hurston Gardens P.O. Box 2023 Suva, FIJI Email: rocksfel@yahoo.com.au Jone Niukula (invasive mammals) National Trust of Fiji P.O. Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva, FIJI Email: j_niukula@yahoo.com Isaac Rounds (plants) National Trust of Fiji P.O. Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva, FIJI Email: i.rounds@conservation.org Baravi haman (freshwater ish) South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: thaman_b@usp.ac.j Nunia homas (herpetofauna, maps) NatureFiji-MareqetiViti 259 Princes Rd. Suva, FIJI nuniat@natureiji.org Marika Tuiwawa (expedition leader, plants) South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: tuiwawa_m@usp.ac.j Hilda Waqa-Sakiti (insects) South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: waqa_h@yahoo.com A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 5 Participants and Authors Dick Watling (birds) NatureFiji-MareqetiViti 259 Princes Rd. Suva, FIJI nuniat@natureiji.org watling@natureiji.org Arthur Whistler (plants) South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Email: whistler@hawaii.edu 6 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Organizational Profiles FIJI WATER FOUNDATION Launchedin inAugust August2007 2007through througha agrant grantfrom from Launched FIJI Water owners Stewart and Lynda Resnick, FIJI Water owners Stewart and Lynda Resnick, the FIJI FIJIWater WaterFoundation Foundationisisa acharitable charitable trust the trust funded by our owners, employees, and partners funded by our owners, employees, and partners from around the world. he Foundation is one from around the world. he Foundation is one of the largest philanthropic organizations in Fiji of largeston philanthropic organizations in Fiji andthefocuses three priority areas of development and focuses on three priority areas of development throughout Fiji; a) Improving access to and quality throughout Fiji;b)improving a) Improving access and quality of health care, access to to and quality of care,and b)improving to and quality c) of health education provision access of water, sanitation, of education and provision of water,quality sanitation, c) infrastructure projects to improve of life. infrastructure projects to improve quality of life. he Fiji Water Foundation has contributed towards Since establishment,ofwe in these the establishment thehave Sovifunded Basin projects Trust Fund and three areas touching beneiciariesInternatyional’s in thirteen of Fiji’s towards funding Conservation work in the Nakauvadra fourteen provinces. and Nakorotubu Ranges, Ra. Fiji Water Foundation P.O.Box 18799, Suva. 91 Gordon Street, Suva. Fax: 3304774 www.ijiwater.com CONsERvATION INTERNATIONAl Conservation International (CI) is an international, nonproit organization based in Arlington, VA. CI’s mission is to conserve the Earth’s living natural heritage, our global biodiversity, and to demonstrate that human societies are able to live harmoniously with nature. he focus of CI – Fiji is to conserve larger landscapes of natural forest and wilderness that still exist in the country. Work mainly focuses on Viti Levu, the largest island of the Fiji Group where it is working towards establishing a Viti Levu Conservation Corridor whose key sites include the Sovi Basin and Nakauvadra Range. CI is also working closely with local communities, partners, in particular the National Trust to build capacity for and implement efective conservation action. To protect its marine resources Fiji has a lourishing network of Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) and CI - Fijiis supporting research to help local communities improve their management of these areas. 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500 Arlington, VA 22202 USA Phone: 1-703-341-2400 Fax: 1-703-553-0654 Web: www.conservation.org 3 Ma’afu Street, PO Box 2089 Suva, FIJI Phone: +679 3314593 Fax: +679 3305092 sOUTh PACIFIC REgIONAl hERbARIUm he South Paciic Regional Herbarium (SPRH) is maintained and administered by the Institute of Applied Sciences at the University of the South Paciic (USP). he SPRH serves the member countries of USP which consists of the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Solomon Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Tokelau, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. It currently houses more than 50,000 vascular plant specimens in the main collection and has a wet collection of plant parts, bryophytes and algae from the Paciic region. he SPRH serves as an important resource in matters pertaining to the taxonomy, conservation and ecology of plants, forestry, land use planning, economic plants and weed problems in the Paciic region. As a member of an international network of herbaria, the SPRH participates in programs to maintain collections of botanical plants specimens for study by both local and international botanists and scientists working in associated ields. South Paciic Regional Herbarium Institute of Applied Sciences University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 7 Organizational Proiles Web: http://ias.fst.usp.ac.j/index.php?id=ias_ herbarium Phone: +679 3232970 Fax: +679 3231534 bIOlOgy DIvIsION, UNIvERsITy OF ThE sOUTh PACIFIC he Biology Division at USP is part of the Faculty of Science, Technology & Environment. he Division’s primary task is undergraduate and postgraduate teaching with a biology focus. his includes undergraduate subjects in invertebrate biology, plant diversity and conservation biology plus a postgraduate course in biodiversity and conservation. USP provides opportunity for in-depth, irst-hand studies of two of the most diverse, yet contrasting ecosystems in the world – tropical rainforests and coral reefs. Several advanced courses emphasize the ecology and conservation of these systems, which are important throughout the South Paciic region. he Division also plays an active role in the Faculty’s Biodiversity and Conservation Research Group and is perfectly placed for ield studies in tropical terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. NATIONAl TRUsT OF FIJI he National Trust for Fiji is a statutory body created in 1970 for the protection of the country’s national, cultural and natural heritage. he work of the organization is supported by the National Trust Act of 1978, the Government’s National Heritage Policy of 1996 and the National Trust Amendment Act of 1998. he role of the organization extends beyond the management of individual properties it owns or leases to a vision that embraces heritage management in Fiji. Local communities are involved in programmes, partnerships established locally and internationally, and the organization adheres to regional and international agreements. he responsibility of the National Trust is to the people of Fiji and to the international community. National Trust of Fiji P.O. Box 2089 Government Buildings Suva, FIJI Web: www.nationaltrust.org Phone: +679 3301807 Fax: +679 3305092 Division of Biology Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment University of the South Paciic, Private Mail Bag Suva, FIJI Phone: +679 3232876 Fax: +679 3231512 FIJI DEPARTmENT OF FOREsTs NATUREFIJI-mAREqETIvITI Fiji Department of Forestry PO Box 2218 Government Buildings Suva, FIJI Phone: +679 3301611 Fax: +679 3318691 NatureFiji-MareqetiViti is the membership-based working arm of the Fiji Nature Conservation Trust. NatureFiji-MareqetiViti’s mission is to enhance biodiversity and habitat conservation, endangered species protection and sustainable use of natural resources of the Fiji Islands through the promotion of collaborative conservation action, awareness raising, education, research and biodiversity information exchange. Phone: +679 3100598 Web: www.natureiji.org Email: support@natureiji.org he Department is committed to the development of forest resource management strategies and the enforcement of sustainable forest practices and aims to maximize the contribution to the Forestry sector of the country’s economy. WETlANDs INTERNATIONAl - OCEANIA Wetlands International – Oceania exists to sustain and restore wetlands, their resources and biodiversity for future generations through research, information exchange and conservation activities, particularly in the Paciic Islands region. Wetlands International – Oceania (Fiji Oice) 8 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Organizational Proiles C/- Marine Studies Program University of the South Paciic Private Mailbag Suva, FIJI Phone: + 679 925 5425 Fax: + 679 332 2413 Email: apjenkins@wetlands-oceania.org FIJI mUsEUm he Fiji Museum is a statutory body that is governed by the Fiji Museum Act and the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest Act. he Archaeology Department at the Fiji Museum utilizes the Acts in all its operations with the aim of identifying, protecting and conserving archaeological and cultural heritage for the current and future generations. he Fiji Museum hurston Gardens PO Box 2023 Suva, FIJI Phone: +679 3315944 Fax: +679 3305143 Web: www.ijimuseum.org.j A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 9 Acknowledgments his Rapid Assessment Programme survey would not have been possible without the help and assistance of many organizations and individuals. Foremost we thank the Fiji Water Foundation for the funds to enable this RAP survey to be carried out. We thank the following organizations for providing personnel for the RAP survey: South Paciic Regional Herbarium (SPRH), and the Institute of Applied Sciences of the University of the South Paciic, Conservation International (Fiji), National Trust of Fiji, Fiji Museum, Wetlands International – Oceania, NatureFiji-MareqetiViti, Fiji Department of Forestry and the Biology Division (University of the South Paciic). he RAP was a success due to the outstanding contribution of the following individuals most of whom are ailiated to the above mentioned institutions. We appreciate the assistance of Arthur Whistler, Aaron Jenkins, Baravi haman, Kinikoto Mailautoka, Alivereti Naikatini, Jone Niukula, Senivalati Vido, Isaac Rounds, Nunia homas, Hilda Waqa-Sakiti, Tokasaya Cakacaka, Presly Dovo, Dick Watling, Sepeti Matararaba, Elia Nakoro, Talie Foliga, Gilianne Brodie, Sefanaia Nawadra, Ilaitia Finau and Marika Tuiwawa. We thank the SPRH and Conservation International (Fiji) for organizing the approval and support for conducting the survey through the Ra Provincial Council and Oice. hank you to the Vanua of Naroko, Tokaimalo, Rakiraki and Natokea for their approval and blessings. Special mention goes to Assistant Roko – Amelia Ravu, Forestry Oicer – Nemani Vuniwaqa, and the Mata ni Tikina of Tokaimalo and Naroko for paving the way. Without them things would have been so much harder to arrange. Special thank you to the local land-owning communities of Narara, Nayaulevu Vatukacevaceva and Vunisea villages for their support and generous hospitality. We would also like to thank all our local ield guides and porters for their indispensable help and enthusiasm throughout the survey. We deeply appreciate the assistance of Miniroti, Kalaveti Ravulo, Sevuloni Vanavana, Belo, Tama i Ratu, Iosefo, Jone, Nemani, Avai and Saloma. Gilianne Brodie would like to thank Professor Per Sundberg, University of Rothenburg (Sweden) for assistance with the identiication of the nematomorphan (horsehair) worm. 10 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Report at a glance A RAPID BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT OF THE NAKAUVADRA HIGHLANDS, RA PROVINCE, FIJI Expedition Dates November 17-28, 2008 Description of Expedition his 11-day RAP expedition surveyed several sites in the proposed Nakauvadra Range forest reserve, a 11387 ha isolated forested remnant in the Ra Province, Fiji. he survey sites were located in talasiga grassland, lowland rainforest, upland rainforest and cloud forest habitats in the northeast of Fiji’s largest island, Viti Levu. he actual ield work began at Vatukacevaceva village where the team hiked through the talasiga grasslands into the forested mountains. he irst base camp was located at 280 m on a lood plain next to the conluence of the Nabiya and Toluwalu Streams in lowland rainforest. he second base camp was located near the Vuniqesa Creek at 320 m altitude in lowland rainforest. he third camp was located at 600 m altitude in cloud forest. hree to four days were spent at each site with the exception of the third camp which was only surveyed for one night. All of the sites showed signs of human disturbance but, with the exception of the talasiga grasslands, also provided access to relatively undisturbed forest habitats. Reason for the RAP Survey In April 2008, the Fiji Water Foundation and CI entered into a three-year grant agreement to protect the natural resources of Viti Levu, Fiji. One of the three key objectives of the Fiji Water Grant involves technical assessments and community consultations to facilitate conservation initiatives within the Yaqara and Nakauvadra watersheds. As part of the implementation of this objective, one of the key components was to gain an understanding of the existing environment in the Yaqara Valley and conduct an ecological baseline assessment of the Nakauvadra Range. MAJOR RESULTS In total the RAP survey documented 520 conirmed species (Table 1), including a number of rare and endangered species. he discovery of the Fiji Ground frog (Platymantis vitianus) which was thought to have been extirpated 20 years ago from mainland Fiji (including Viti Levu) was a highlight of the survey. hree of Viti Levu’s globally threatened bird species were recorded, the Fiji long-legged warbler (Trichocichla rufa), the Black-faced shrikebill (Clytorhynchus nigrogularis) and the Friendly ground dove (Gallicolumba stairii) along with two rare and endemic stick insects Nisyrus spinulosus and Phasmotaenia inermis. Two plant species of particular interest found were Degeneria roseiflora (Viti Levu endemic, rare) and Neoalsomitra integrifoliola (rare in Fiji). New records and range extensions were made for a number of species in all taxa. hese results suggest that due to its moderate to high biodiversity and relative isolation, the Nakauvadra Range should be targeted for A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 11 Report at a Glance conservation action. (EN) Samoan fruit bat Pteropus samoensis (NT, CITES I, II) Tongan fruit bat Pteropus tonganus (CITES I, II) Species of conservation concern (IUCN 2008 and CITES 2008) Amphibians Fiji ground frog Platymantis vitianus (EN) Fiji tree frog Platymantis vitiensis (NT) Reptiles Paciic Boa Candoia bibroni (CITES II) Plants Astronidium robustum (NT) Astronidium tomentosum (NT) Degeneria roseiflora (NT) Cycas seemannii (VU, CITES II) Dendrobium biflorum (CITES II) Fagraea gracilipes (NT) Geniostoma cf. clavigerum (CR) Oberonia heliophila (CITES II) Pandanus cf. joskei (VU) Podocarpus affinis (VU) Podocarpus neriifolius (CITES III) Birds Fiji goshawk Accipter ruftitorques (CITES II) Paciic harrier Circus approximans (CITES II) Black-faced shrikebill Clytorhynchus nigrogularis (VU) Friendly ground dove Gallicolumba stairii (VU) Collared lory Phigys solitarius (CITES II) Fiji long-legged warbler Trichocichla rufa (EN) Barn owl Tyto alba (CITES II) Mammals Paciic sheath-tailed bat Emballonura semicaudata Table 1. Number of species recorded during the 2008 Nakauvadra Range RAP survey. Insects are not included due to incomplete identiication of specimens (completed down to family only). Total Plants Herpetofauna Birds Mammals Terrestrial gastropods Freshwater macroinvertebrates1 Freshwater ish TOTAL 418 11 34 9 5 35 Number of endemic species 138 4 13 0 - Number of native species 200 5 17 3 - Number of introduced species 80 2 4 6 1 - 8 520 0 155 6 231 2 95 1 - represents unknown number of species in the category (39 species in total unclassiied due to unconirmed identiications) 12 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Report at a Glance KEY CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS (Additional recommendations are presented in the Executive Summary) Protection of important habitats Because of the relative pristine nature of the forests in the Nakauvadra Range and the fact that it is one of the last remaining intact forest systems on the drier side of Viti Levu, every efort should be made to collaborate with local communities, Government departments, conservation NGOs and academic researchers to conserve the forests in the region. his will also include rehabilitation of forest areas decimated by clearing for agriculture and grazing by goats. In particular, forests in the upper reaches of the three main river headwaters, the Nakauvadra, Penang and the Wainibuka catchments, should be preserved as protected areas to maintain water quality and act as a repository for potable water for the local communities (only three rivers, the Nakauvadra, Penang and the Wainibuka catchments, are currently oicially recognized in the area). Community awareness and education As the land in the Nakauvadra Range is owned by local communities, they will play a vital role in the future conservation management of the region and the biodiversity within. As such, it is critical that local communities are made aware of the negative impacts of some of their activities as well as ofered potential solutions and/or information to ameliorate the impacts of their daily activities. Future research Due to the short-term nature of this RAP survey, the data collected represents a ‘snapshot’ of the Nakauvadra Range and its biodiversity and conservation value. All researchers involved in this survey agree that further surveys are needed to improve the quality of the data and provide more complete checklists of biodiversity in the area. Additional surveys are also important for assessing the conservation status and distribution of threatened or endangered species recorded during this RAP survey. In addition, future surveys will provide information on seasonal variation as well as provide a more robust baseline for long-term monitoring of biodiversity trends in the region. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 13 Executive summary INTRODUCTION he Republic of Fiji consists of approximately 300 islands located roughly 3000 km east of Australia in the Paciic Ocean (between 16o and 20oS, 177oW and 175oE). here are four main islands in the Fiji group: Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni and Kadavu. he two largest islands, Viti Levu (10,544 km2) and Vanua Levu (5,535 km2) comprise 88% of the total land area (~18,300 km2). It is estimated that no more than 100 islands are permanently inhabited. Most of the islands are the remnants of once active volcanoes sitting on a piece of the Paciic Plate. he landforms of the major islands are diverse and often spectacular, marked by sharp volcanic plugs, ruined calderas, deep gorges and ravines carved by mountain streams, wide lat-bottomed valleys, extensive lood plains and mangrove dominated deltas. Fiji’s larger volcanic islands are dominated by steep mountainous country. he highest mountain, Mt Tomaniivi on Viti Levu is 1323 m and there are 30 peaks over 1000 m (Nunn 1998). he tropical maritime climate is without great extremes of heat or cold. he mean monthly temperature ranges from 23oC in July and August to 27oC in January. In all seasons the predominant winds are the light to moderate tradewinds from the east or southeast. Strong winds are uncommon with the exception of cyclones which generally occur between November and April. Although rainfall is extremely variable, the average rainfall increases steadily inland from coastal areas. In addition, the windward sides of the major islands intercept the easterly air stream and experience far greater rainfall than the leeward sides, consequently resulting in distinctly ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ zones. Generally, the ‘dry’ zone of the larger islands receives an average rainfall of between 1650-2300 mm, the ‘wet’ zone 3050-3450 mm. Some localities commonly receive over 10,000 mm per year. Fiji is large enough to support a wide range of habitats. hese include lowland and montane rainforest, cloud forest, coastal communities and mangroves, inland swamps and wetlands, mixed grasslands and dry forests (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998). Scope of project In April 2008, the Fiji Water Foundation and Conservation International (CI) entered into a threeyear grant agreement to protect the natural resources of Viti Levu, Fiji. he agreement focused on three key objectives: 1. Deinition of the Viti Levu Conservation Corridor; 2. Contribution to the Sovi Basin Trust Fund; and 3. Scientiic and technical assessments and community consultations to facilitate conservation initiatives within the Yaqara and Nakauvadra watersheds. 14 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Executive Summary his RAP survey was undertaken as part of the process to facilitate conservation initiatives within the Yaqara and Nakauvadra watersheds. More speciically, the survey was conducted to gain a better understanding of the existing environment in the Yaqara Valley and provide an ecological baseline assessment of the proposed Nakauvadra Range forest reserve. his information will then be used to make informed decisions on the conservation management of the biodiversity in the area in conjunction with local landowning communities and relevant government departments. RAP SURVEY OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES CI’s RAP is an innovative biological inventory program designed to use scientiic information to catalyze conservation action. RAP methods are designed to rapidly assess the biodiversity of highly diverse areas and to train local scientists in biodiversity survey techniques. Since 1990, RAP’s teams of expert and host-country scientists have conducted 60 terrestrial, freshwater aquatic (AquaRAP), and marine biodiversity surveys and have contributed to building local scientiic capacity for scientists in 26 countries. Biological information from previous RAP surveys has resulted in the protection of millions of hectares of tropical forest, including the declaration of protected areas in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil and the identiication of biodiversity priorities in numerous countries. Criteria generally considered during RAP surveys to identify priority areas for conservation across taxonomic groups include: species richness, species endemism, rare and/or threatened species, and habitat condition. Measurements of species richness can be used to compare the number of species between areas within a given region. Measurements of species endemism indicate the number of species endemic to some deined area and give an indication of both the uniqueness of the area and the species that will be threatened by alteration of that area’s habitat (or conversely, the species that may be conserved through protected areas). Assessment of rare and/or threatened species (IUCN 2008) that are known or suspected to occur within a given area provides an indicator of the importance of the area for the conservation of global biodiversity. he conirmed presence or absence of such species also aids assessment of their conservation status. Many of the threatened species on IUCN’s Red List carry increased legal protection thus giving greater importance and weight to conservation decisions. Describing the number of speciic habitat types or subhabitats within an area identiies sparse or poorly known habitats within a region that contribute to habitat variety and therefore to species diversity. he primary aim of this RAP survey was to document the terrestrial lora and fauna diversity and the cultural signiicance of the Nakauvadra Range in the Ra Province on Viti Levu, Fiji. he information collected will be used to make informed decisions on the conservation management of the biodiversity in the area. We selected survey sites to encompass the major habitat types found within the Nakauvadra Range. Our speciic objectives were to: l l l l Collect baseline data on the diversity and conservation signiicance of major terrestrial lora and fauna taxa in the Nakauvadra Range. Identify potential threats to biodiversity in the area, and propose mitigation strategies to enhance biodiversity conservation in the Nakauvadra Range. Increase local capacity by providing handson training in ield biodiversity inventory techniques for students, local guides and local government researchers. Make RAP data available for conservation management decision makers in Government, local communities, NGOs, academia and the general public. Study area he proposed Nakauvadra Range forest reserve encompasses an area of 11387 ha ranging from 300-866 m elevation in the Ra Province in the northeast of Viti Levu south of Rakiraki town (see Map 1a). he Nakauvadra Range extends for about 22 km along the north coast of Viti Levu with the eastern lank terminating in clifs at Viti Levu Bay. To the west the range is about 6.5 km wide with the A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 15 Executive Summary highest peak Uluda rising to more than 800 m and is bordered by steep clifs on the northern and southern slopes (Hirst 1965). he range is made up of andesite rocks of the Ba volcanic group formed from two main volcanoes, the Tavua and Rakiraki volcanoes. Radiometric dating of the Ba volcanic group shows a range of between 5.0 to 3.0 Ma (Rodda 1976). Drainage at Nakauvadra Range is controlled by north-westerly fractures some which have been intruded by dykes. Several spurs extend southeast while to the east of the range a large northwesterly spur forms the rounded hills of Rokavukavu Peninsula (Hirst 1965). In the lower regions there is a mix of disturbed vegetation, such as grasslands, plantations, agroforests, and secondary forest in the relatively lat and accessible land near villages. Native lowland forest, upland forest and cloud forest occur in the more rugged and higher elevation areas. he range is completely surrounded by cleared land with the nearest forested block being 4 km to the southwest. here are many trails through the forested areas which are generally used by local communities to travel between villages and for hunting. he Nakauvadra Range lies in one of the drier areas in Fiji. here are no rainfall data or meteorological data available from within the Nakauvadara Range. he Nakauvadra Range lies on the leeward side of the main island and being situated on the rain shadow it receives on average around 2000 mm of rain per year, half the amount it would get if located on the windward side (Raj 1993). Monthly rainfall data ranges from about 50 mm during the dry season to about 400 mm during the wet or cyclone season (Fiji Meteorological Oice). he nearest weather station is located at the Penang Sugar Mill. Minimum monthly temperatures range between 20.2-23.5oC while maximum monthly temperatures range between 27.1-20.1oC. he Nakauvadra Range is divided amongst approximately 75 traditional landowning units (Mataqali) that are based in 3 districts; Naroko, Tokaimalo and Naiyalayala. Site descriptions Most of the survey work was carried out along two infrequently used trails (Vatukacevaceva to Nayaulevu Village trail, and Vunisea to Narara Village trail) and their surrounding creeks and streams that form the headwaters of the Wainibuka River. he areas 16 surveyed along both trails ranged from 100 m to about 700 m in elevation. he majority of the creeks at higher altitudes (500-600 m) were dry and began to ill up at lower altitudes (<400 m). Overall, the higher altitude forest (600-800 m) along the northern border had greater species diversity and was more heterogeneous. In the lower altitude forests (100-300 m) along the southern border there were seral gradients along the larger creek edges and heavy encroachment of some better known invasive trees like Spathodea campunulata, Albizia saman and Piper aduncum. he general lack of ground cover, absence of epiphytes on tree trunks and dry stream beds in a pristine native forest is indicative of a lowland rainforest on the drier side of Viti Levu. Camp site 1 Camp site 1 was set up at an elevation of about 300 m on a creek lat at the conluence of the Nabiya and Toluwalu creeks which are headwaters of the Wainibuka River. he vegetation around the campsite was that of a lowland vegetation type that is typical of a system previously exposed to anthropogenic activities and/or damaged by natural disasters like loods and cyclones. Away from the riparian vegetation the forest canopy was generally closed as evident in the low levels of ground cover. Occasionally along the slopes and creek lats native trees with diameter at breast height of up to 80 cm were encountered. Camp site 2 Camp site 2 was set-up at an elevation of 320 m on a lat area near the Vuniqesa Creek. More recent (and regular) impacts on the vegetation were evident in the presence of more plants and animals associated with human activities. hese included Dioscorea spp (“wild yams”), Bambusa vulgaris and B. simplex (bamboos), Citrus limon (wild lemon), Mangifera indica (mango), Colocasia spp. (taro), Derris malaccensis (derris) and Syzygium malaccensis (malay apple). Most of these plants were noticed along the trail. When compared to Camp 1 the overall species diversity was poorer and the presence of large areas with almost a pure stand of a single sub-canopy tree species was more prevalent. Camp site 3 Camp site 3 was set up alongside a stream lat at an elevation of about 630 m. he surrounding area was A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Executive Summary very wet with stunted trees covered with mosses, liverworts and lichens. On average, tree heights were about 2-4 m with dbh of 8 cm. here were more epiphytes and vines (Freycinetia spp.) and ground cover was total. he more common subcanopy trees were Psychotria spp. and canopy trees were Metrosideros colina. Overall species richness was very high especially with native species. SUMMARY OF RAP RESULTS BY TAXONOMIC GROUP Vegetation A total of 418 plant taxa (including eight undetermined angiosperm species) were recorded comprising 75 ferns and their allies, ive gymnosperms and 338 angiosperms. Of the recorded species, 338 were native species and 80 were aliens. he 338 native taxa could be divided into two groups; (i) indigenous species (200 species), and (ii) endemic species (138 species) equating to an endemicity of 41% of the native lora and 34% for the entire lora. Two species of particular interest were Degeneria roseiflora (rare on Viti Levu) and Neoalsomitra integrifoliola (rare in Fiji). Four principle vegetation types were identiied: (1) Talasiga Vegetation, (2) Lowland Rainforest, (3) Upland Rainforest, and (4) Cloud Forest. Most of the lower elevation vegetation types were disturbed or partially disturbed while the higher elevation vegetation types were generally primary forest. Herpetofauna A total of 11 frog and reptile species were documented representing approximately 33% of Fiji’s terrestrial herpetofauna. his included three frog species, four skinks and four geckoes. In addition, skin sheds from the snake Candoia bibroni were also observed. All species were observed in relatively low abundances. Four of the species are endemic to Fiji (Platymantis vitianus, P. vitiensis, Emoia concolor and E. parkeri). With the exception of the introduced cane toad (Bufo marinus), and the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris), the remaining species are native to Fiji and the Paciic. his survey documented the only known extant population of P. vitianus on Viti Levu. his frog species was thought to have been extirpated from Viti Levu in the last 20 years and as such this result highlights the conservation signiicance of the Nakauvadra Range for herpetofauna biodiversity. Birds A total of 34 bird species were recorded in the surveys. hirteen species are endemic to Fiji, four were introduced species and the remainder native. hree of Viti Levu’s globally threatened species were recorded – Long Legged Warbler (Endangered, auditory record only); Black-faced Shrikebill and the Friendly Ground-Dove which was quite common. Notable species not recorded included the Masked Shining Parrot and the Polynesian Starling, though these have both been recorded previously. For birds, the Nakauvadra Range has the same conservation signiicance as other large forest blocks on Viti Levu. Mammals Only three species of bats were recorded: Pteropus tonganus, P. samoensis and Emballonura semicaudata. he latter two species are listed in the IUCN Red List as Near hreatened and Endangered respectively. No roost of any of the bat species was recorded within the area covered during the survey. Six invasive mammal species were recorded during the survey. hese included two rat species (Rattus exulans and R. rattus), one mongoose (Herpestes fuscus), domestic horses (Aquus caballus), goats (Capra sp.), domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), and pigs (Sos scrofa). Although most of these species were observed in very low densities, they were found throughout the area surveyed including fairly secluded and hard to reach regions on mountain ridges and denser forest. he inding of the mongoose H. fuscus is only the second record of the species in Fiji (compared to common small Indian mongoose H. javanicus). Due to the size of the area and accessibility, eradication of most of these invasive mammal species is not feasible. However it may be possible to increase reforestation rates of the native lora through the removal and/or exclusion of goats from the area. Terrestrial gastropods Even without dedicated sampling at least ive diferent species of terrestrial gastropod were found. One species (Parmarion martensi Simroth 1893) is introduced and has documented agricultural pest and human health associations. All of the other species found are very likely to be unique to Fiji A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 17 Executive Summary (endemic) and members of their families from other Paciic Island countries are listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List. Based on the previously recorded high diversity of terrestrial gastropods in Fiji, increased sampling efort in wetter conditions would undoubtedly reveal a higher diversity of both endemic and native species being present. Freshwater macroinvertebrates he total species richness of macroinvertebrates found in the four sites sampled was 35 species with mayly abundance and caddisly larval diversity being high. hese results are indicative of relatively “healthy” streams and are as expected for upper catchment streams surrounded by a relatively “undisturbed” catchment area. No obvious invasive freshwater macroinvertebrates were found during sampling. However, there were obvious signs of invasive weeds in the stream beds particularly in the lower Volivoli Stream sites sampled. his is of concern as any similar accidental introductions of non-native freshwater invertebrate species in the future, such as viviparid gastropods, may displace the native fauna and introduce species capable of acting as vectors for human-related illnesses. Terrestrial Invertebrates he order Coleopetera (beetles) was the most common insect order encountered through the surveys with a total 18 families. Rare families encountered during the surveys included: Cerambycidae, Lucanidae and Buprestidae. he greatest diversity of insects sampled from the Nakauvadra Range using nocturnal searches, tree beating and butterly surveys was located within relatively intact, lowland forest near the conluence of the Nabiya and Volivoli Creeks. he highlight of the survey was the discovery of two stick insects both of which are endemic and very rare in the Fiji islands, with virtually nothing known about either species: Nisyrus spinulosus (syn. Cotylosoma) and Phasmotaenia inermis (syn. Hermarchus) and a shy scorpion Liocheles australasiae. hese were also found within the lowland forested area. Freshwater ish Eight species of ish from ive diferent families were collected or observed during the survey. Two species were collected from the family Gobiidae (Awaous guamnesis and Sicyopterus zosterophorum) 18 that dominated the mid and the upper catchments. Also collected were three species of freshwater eels from the family Anguillidae (Anguilla marmorata, A. obscura and A. megastoma). he freshwater moray, Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Family Muraenidae), was also observed but not collected. We did not record any introduced exotic species in the mid and upper catchments although we observed that the lower catchment of the river system was heavily populated by the introduced Mozambique Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus (Family Cichlidae) and the mosquitoish, Gambusia affinis (Family Poeciliidae). he two catchments surveyed appear depauperate in both diversity and abundance of ishes. here are a number of notably absent families (eg. Kuhlidae, Eleotridae) and the sparse ichthyofauna that remains are among the hardier, ubiquitous species. No endemic or sensitive, rare fauna were observed. Cultural signiicance During the course of the survey, an annotated ield map of signiicant cultural sites was constructed to identify and map sites of historical and cultural signiicance in the Nakauvadra Range. Our resulting maps generally depicted that resting spots or stopover spots were found high up in the forest and close to mountain peaks. Fortiied settlements in the form of ring-ditches and stone walls were evident further up into the forest and closer to water sources. Also observed were mound features used as native land boundaries showing land holding units amongst the diferent yavusa or clans during Rt. Sukuna’s presence in the Veitarogi Vanua around the early 1950s. CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS Address potential threats Protection of Nakauvadra Range he forests in the Nakauvadra Range are one of the last remaining intact forest systems on the drier side of Viti Levu. hese forests are currently not protected by any environmental legislation or conservation initiatives in Fiji. As the forests in the area are comparatively pristine and isolated due to their relative current inaccessibility, they provide potential security for a number of endemic taxa and habitats in Fiji. For example, the Nakauvadra Range contains the only known population of the endangered Fiji ground frog, Platymantis vitianus, which was thought A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Executive Summary to have been extirpated from Viti Levu 20 years previously. As such, the results of this RAP survey can be used to develop a sustainable, long-term conservation plan for the Nakauvadra Range in collaboration with local landowning communities, relevant government institutions (at the local, regional and national scales), conservation NGOs, and academic institutions. In particular, forests in the upper reaches of the three main river headwaters, the Nakauvadra, Penang and the Wainibuka catchments, should be preserved as protected areas to maintain water quality and act as a repository for potable water for the local communities (only three rivers, the Nakauvadra, Penang and the Wainibuka catchments, are currently oicially recognized in the area). Some special micro-habitats were observed where an almost pure stand of a single species of plant was found. his included a Pandanus forest, an intact Metrosideros colina forest and a forest dominated by the majestic Agathis macrophylla. Such systems are rare and in the Nakauvadra Range they were found in sections of the upper lowland vegetation with primary forest further away from known trails. Similarly the upland forests found at around the 550-650 m elevation and cloud forests noticed at elevations >600 m had some of the best primary forest stands on Viti Levu. Of particular interest is its rich epiphytic lora especially the orchids and ferns. Such intact forest systems on the drier side of Viti Levu are rare as most have now being replaced with talasiga grassland and plantation forest. Taxa-speciic threats Herpetofauna Feral pigs and horses used by hunters pose a serious threat to the breeding habitats of the both the Fiji ground frog and the tree frog. Hunters should be made aware of the impacts of their horses on breeding habitats and encouraged to avoid riparian forest areas. he presence of the introduced mongoose Herpestes fuscus and rats pose a potential threat. here is no evidence as yet on the direct impacts of the mongoose and rats on herpetofauna populations in the Nakauvadra Range; and the rediscovery of the ground frog questions the previously hypothesized negative impacts of mongoose on the frogs. A more detailed survey is needed to address this issue. Birds he size of the Nakauvadra Range forest and its complete isolation from other forest blocks makes it vulnerable to extirpation of species which are poor dispersers over non-forest habitats and have large home ranges such as the Masked Shining Parrot and the Giant Forest Honeyeater. his appears not to have happened as yet but mitigation measures should be taken to prevent any further erosion of forest size or quality. Invasive mammals Although rats and mongoose are known to have detrimental impacts on native fauna and lora, the eradication of these species from the Nakauvadra Range is not feasible given the size of the area and the high potential for re-introduction. On the other hand, the removal or exclusion of goats from parts of the Nakauvadra Range is a feasible and useful exercise given that goats are a major hindrance to the re-growth of native forest especially on the periphery and in the high rocky and grassland areas. his could be done by: l Identifying potential reforestation sites in consultation with local communities. l Establishing exclusion zones (fencing, etc.). l Removal of goats from project sites and monitoring vegetation re- establishment. Terrestrial gastropods he unique nature of Fiji’s land snail fauna, and the high potential for its irretrievable loss by high risk invasive species, makes strategic planning for their long-term conservation vital. hese goals would be best achieved by relatively large scale habitat conservation in areas such as native forest and areas with signiicant deposits of limestone (needed by many terrestrial gastropod species for shell development). Freshwater macroinvertebrates he macroinvertebrate biodiversity ratios found (i.e. high mayly and caddisly larvae) are as expected for upper catchment streams surrounded by native forest with a relatively “undisturbed” catchment area. However, there is evidence of invasive weed A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 19 Executive Summary species along the stream beds which implies there is strong potential for similar introductions of invasive freshwater fauna. Eforts should be made to reduce pathways for introduction and spread including: l Restricting horse access. l Keeping the use of camp streams and access tracks to a minimum. l Controlling the entry of human related waste e.g. chemicals or rubbish, into streams. Special eforts should be made to keep the natural vegetation intact and undisturbed along all stream banks since the overall health of the waterways is likely to be reliant on organic matter inputs from the surrounding forest. Freshwater ish Catchment level management and rehabilitation should be undertaken especially in the lower catchments in order to restore some of the ecosystem function of rivers in the Nakauvadra Range and in turn increase the ish migratory capacity to the upper catchments. Some potential options for assisting in catchment rehabilitation are: and will also kill all juveniles, thus removing future potential populations. Introduced ish species at the lower catchment of the two rivers are a major threat to native ish diversity. he introduced species Oreochromis mossambicus and Gambusia affinis will feed on the larvae of the migratory species which must use the river as their migration path. Eforts must be made to ensure that these species are not introduced into other catchments in the Nakauvadra Range. Community awareness As the land in the Nakauvadra Range is owned by local communities, they will play a vital role in the future conservation management of the region and the biodiversity within. As such, it is critical that local communities are made aware of the negative impacts of some of their activities as well as ofered potential solutions and/or information to ameliorate the impacts of their daily activities. Some of these have been discussed previously for speciic taxa. Additional community education and awareness will include: l Community-based replanting of bufer zones particularly in mid-catchment areas adjacent to subsistence agriculture and road crossing areas. l Village level waste and water management plans (e.g. construction of ecological or compost toilets, livestock waste areas, minimize livestock traversing waterways). A concerted efort should be made to prevent the introduction of any exotic aquatic fauna to the upper sections these rivers. Any introduction will likely further erode the ecological function of these waterways. Stocking of native species (e.g. Gudgeons) could be considered as well as integrated irrigation/ aquaculture of prawns (Macrobrachium sp). he use of these poisonous Derris sp. plants for ishing should be strongly discouraged. It can change the quality of water by depleting oxygen and asphyxiating all aquatic life, particularly in pools and slower lowing reaches of streams. It is indiscriminate 20 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji l l l l l l Awareness of the negative impacts of uncontrolled burning on the lora and fauna of the region. Awareness of the impacts of invasive species on both local fauna and lora due to uncontrolled access to all sites within the region. Awareness of the signiicance of the native fauna and lora and the need to conserve forested areas for biodiversity conservation. Awareness of alternative forms of sustainable livelihoods. Awareness of the need to preserve cultural sites and oral traditional stories from within the region. Awareness of the importance of bats and their ecological role, something which has been neglected in many Fijian communities where bats are not seen as important species, but only a nuisance. Executive Summary Future research Further surveys are needed to improve data quality and provide more complete checklists of biodiversity in the area. Additional surveys are also important for assessing the conservation status and distribution of threatened or endangered species recorded during this RAP survey. In addition, future surveys will provide information on seasonal variation as well as provide a more robust baseline for long-term monitoring of biodiversity trends in the region. Plants 1. More specimen collections are needed as only a very small area was accessed during this survey. he checklist of vascular species present is only preliminary and probably includes only 70% of the species present. he orchids are much under-represented, since many of the species are restricted to the tops of trees, where they were not observed (Fiji has about 150 native species of orchid). Epiphytic plants and especially ferns are also under-represented for the same reasons. 2. More plots need to be sampled at much higher elevations (cloud forest) and further away from known trails. 3. It is particularly necessary that future collections be carried out at least four months away from November to allow for seasonal variation. Bats More surveys need to be conducted in the Nakauvadra Range for bats to: 1. Locate the presence of any roosting colonies of each bat species as none were found during this survey. his is to be carried out in nearby forest areas and at diferent times of the year. 2. Monitor population size of the diferent bat species foraging in the Nakauvadra Range. Since no roosts for any of the three species were located during this survey it was impossible to carry out density or abundance estimates for bats in the area. 3. Determine whether the Fiji blossom bat (Notopteris macdonaldi) is also present in the region. Terrestrial gastropods Future, more focused, surveys and research of terrestrial gastropods in more suitable weather conditions are needed to: 1. Obtain a more comprehensive checklist of species in the region. 2. Capitalize on their suitability as excellent sentinel taxa for ecosystem change. 3. Assess the potential of Parmarion martensi to detrimentally afect human health (through consumption) and native fauna. Insects A more comprehensive and accurate checklist of insects in the Nakauvadra Range can be obtained by: Herpetofauna Further surveys are needed for the herpetofauna of the Nakauvadra Range. More speciically further studies are needed to: 1. Determine the distribution of P. vitianus in the region. 2. Estimate population sizes of P. vitianus and P. vitiensis. 3. Determine the presence of other herpetofauna species that were likely missed during this survey due to time and weather constraints. 4. Collect DNA for biogeographical comparisons to populations in other areas of Fiji. 1. Using more entomological trapping techniques including malaise trapping and active searching. 2. Surveying in more suitable weather and at diferent times of year to capture seasonal variation. 3. Surveying more speciic habitats at a wider range of elevations. 4. Targeting rare and endemic species. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 21 Executive Summary In addition, the rare, endemic and possibly endangered insect species particularly N. spinulosus and P. inermis should be monitored throughout the year and between years to provide data on population numbers, local distribution patterns and seasonality patterns for the development of appropriate conservation and protection strategies. Cultural diversity In order to avoid the loss of traditional knowledge of the region, we recommend the following: 1. Proper and complete documentation of the survey area and oral history be undertaken. his to be translated into the Fijian language with copies made available to the locals. 2. he old village site belonging to the people of Vunisea (and other villages) displaying a formation of fortiication wall that is unique (and not recorded previously in Fiji), be cleaned and maintained by the local villagers. 3. Traditional knowledge of biodiversity overall is poor and training for the locals with the assistant of elders from the locality should be encouraged and supported. REFERENCES Mueller-Dombois, D. and F. R. Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Paciic Islands. Springer Press, New York. Nunn, P. D. 1998. Paciic Island Landscapes. he University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. Raj, R. 1993. Extreme rainfall in Fiji and its socio-economic implications, paper presented at the Western Paciic Workshop on Seasonal to Inter-Annual Climate Variability. Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Australia. Paciic Workshop on Seasonal to Inter-Annual Climate Variability: Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Australia. Terry, J. P. 2007. Tropical Cyclones. Springer, New York. 22 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji maps and Photos Map 1a. Map of Fiji with location of Nakauvadra Range on Viti Levu. Map 1b. Location of survey areas within the Nakauvadra Range A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 23 Map and Photo’s Map 2. Vegetation sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range Map 3. Herpetofauna sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range 24 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Map and Photo’s Map 4. Bird sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range Map 5. Bat sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 25 Map and Photo’s Map 6. Invasive mammal sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range Map 7. Freshwater macroinvertebrate sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range 26 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Map and Photo’s Map 8. Insect sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range Map 9. Freshwater ish sampling sites in the Nakauvadra Range A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 27 Map and Photo’s 28 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Map and Photo’s A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 29 Map and Photo’s Photographer’s initials are listed at the end of each photo description. NT = Nunia Thomas, GB = Gilianne Brodie, AW = Art Whistler, VC = Visheshni Chandra, BT = Baravi Thaman, EN = Elia Nokoro 1. Dry sections of Toluwalu Stream with 2. Volivoli Creek, downstream of Base intermittent non-stagnant pools of water Camp 1 is dominated by big boulders (NT) (NT) 3. Upper Nabiya Stream, with low water levels during the survey (NT) 4. Vuniqese Stream, just beside Camp 2. The gravid female P. vitianus was captured from this stream on one of these boulders. The skink, E. impar was also observed in high abundance, foraging along this stream bank (NT) 5a. Fiji Ground Frog, Platymantis vitianus (NT) 5b. Fiji Tree Frog, P. vitiensis (NT) 5c. Introduced cane toad, Bufo marinus (NT) 6. Blue-tailed copper striped skink (native), E. impar foraging on the boulders along Vuniqese Stream (NT) 7. The endemic Fiji copper headed skink, E. parkeri captured along Nabiya Stream (NT) 30 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Map and Photo’s 9. Skull of the introduced mongoose H. fuscus found along a dry section of the Nabiya Stream bed. The whole skeleton was still intact whendiscovered (NT) 8a. Giant forest gecko, G. vorax found inland from Nabiya Stream, underneath tree bark (NT) 8b. Giant forest gecko, G. vorax found inland from Nabiya Stream, underneath tree bark (NT) 10. Introduced species Parmarion martensi Simroth 1893 (GB) 11. Shell of the endemic Fiji species Placostylus sp. (A10) (GB) 12a. Living specimen of likely endemic species (A2) from the family Helicarionidae (GB) 12b. Living specimen of likely endemic species (A5) from the family Helicarionidae (GB) 13. Cicada commonly encountered in light traps (AW) 14. A nymph of the genus Diaphlebus (Tettigoniidae: Mecopodinae). Three endemic species are known from Fiji and were irst recorded in the 1890s; (Naskrecki, pers. comm. 2009) (AW) A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 31 Map and Photo’s 15. Endemic Fijian swallowtail butterly, Papilio schmeltzi (VC) 16. Endemic and very rare Fijian stick insect, Nisysus spinulosus (AW) 17. Endemic and rare Fijian stick insect (right), Phasmotaenia inermis (AW) 18. Shy and docile scorpion Liocheles australasiae (AW) 19. Male climbing goby, Sicyopus zosterophorum (Upper Vunilaci River) 80 mm SL (BT) 20. Recently used Derris roots on the banks of the Vunilaci River (BT) 21. The introduced species 22. Algae bloom in the lower catchment, 23. Searching for remains at Oreochromis mossambicus is highly indicative of nutrient loading and Vunirautoba (EN) abundant in lower catchment areas (BT) harmful to freshwater biodiversity (BT). 32 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Map and Photo’s 24. The rock arch that gave Osa-nai-vua 25. The front face of the rock at Osaits name (EN) nai-vua (EN) 26. Binibini (Putuputu) qele (EN) 27. Surface investigation at Nasovu rock shelter (EN) 28. Scavenging the Asenauluna site for pottery remains (EN) 29. Resting underneath the huge rock at the Wainibela rock shelter (EN) 30. The lattened platform at Marika’s site (EN) 31. House mounds at Hilda’s site (EN) 32. Belo’s rock shelter (EN) 33. Inside the ring ditch at the Motoriki Hill fortiication (EN) 34. Stone wall at the Motoriki Hill Fort (EN) 35. Map of the Vunivauvau Old Village (EN) A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 33 Map and Photo’s 36. Resting under the Matarau rock shelter (EN) 37. Lower Bua Old village (EN) 39. The Rogorogoivuda at Uluda(EN) 40. Tobu ni sili (EN) 41. One of the brother’s house mounds (right) (EN) 42. The rain tree at Conua (EN) 43. Vatukacevaceva Old Village Site (EN) 44. Resting at the Navoka rock shelter (EN) 45. Delaisuvani Peak (EN) 46. Pottery shards collected by the freshwater group (EN) 47. Pottery shards from Matarau rock shelter (EN) 34 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 38. Upper Bua Old village (EN) Map and Photo’s 48. Pottery shards from the Asenauluna 49. Pottery shards from Bua Hill Fort rock shelter (EN) (EN) 51. Pottery shards from the Wainibelo rock shelter (EN) 50. Pottery shards from old Bua Village (EN) 52. Pottery shards from the Nasovu rock 53. Water jug handle from shelter (EN) Vatukacevaceva Village (EN) A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 35 Chapter 1 Botanical Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler Team members: Talie Foliga (postgraduate student, USP), Isaac Rounds (National Trust of Fiji), Minirote (Narara Village), Belo (Nayalevu Village), Nemani (Fiji Department of Forestry). SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ he lora of the Nakauvadra Range is described from a rapid assessment survey of its principle habitats. A total of 418 plant taxa (including eight undetermined angiosperm species) were recorded comprising 75 ferns and their allies, ive gymnosperms and 338 angiosperms. Of all the recorded species, 338 were native species and 80 were aliens. he 338 native taxa could be divided into two groups; (i) indigenous species (200 species), and (ii) endemic species (138 species) equating to an endemicity of 41% of the native lora and 34% for the entire lora. Two species of particular interest were Degeneria roseiflora (rare on Viti Levua) and Neoalsomitra integrifoliola (rare in Fiji). Four principle vegetation types were identiied: (1) Talasiga Vegetation, (2) Lowland Rainforest, (3) Upland Rainforest, and (4) Cloud Forest. Most of the lower elevation vegetation types were disturbed or partially disturbed while the higher elevation vegetation types were generally primary forest. he indings are discussed in a conservation framework that highlights the taxonomic and/or ecosystem value of notable plant species and vegetation types. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ The botanical survey in relation to previous surveys he range of mountains comprising Nakauvadra lies on the northeast side of Viti Levu. It is a mix of disturbed vegetation, such as grasslands, plantations, agroforests, and secondary forest in the relatively lat and accessible land near villages. Native lowland forest, upland forest and cloud forest occur in the more rugged areas and higher elevation areas. here are no known records of any previous botanical expeditions to the Nakauvadra Range as relected in the lack of botanical specimen records deposited in the SUVA herbarium. In 2004 a forest tree inventory was carried out by Fiji’s Department of Forestry but this was restricted to native timber tree species only. he current survey was conducted in November 2008 and involved several botanists and vegetation ecologists including Mr. Marika Tuiwawa (Curator of the South Paciic Regional Herbarium) and Dr. Art Whistler (University of Hawai‘i Botany Department) who were assisted by Mr. Talie Foliga, Mr. Isaac Rounds, and several local ield guides. Other scientists not speciically part of the botanical team but involved in the RAP also helped with the collection of fertile specimens encountered during the course of their ield work. 36 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Botanical Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji METHODOLOGY_______________________________ base camp in Rakiraki Town. Field base camps he actual ieldwork began at the village of Vatukacevaceva where the team hiked through the grasslands up the slope and into the forested mountains. Field base camp 1 (herein referred to as Camp 1, see Maps 1b, 2) was set up on a lood plain next to the conluence of the Nabiya and Toluwalu streams which are headwaters of the Volivoli Creek, a tributary of the Wainibuka River for three days. he research team then established Camp 2 (see Maps 1b, 2) near the Vuniqesa Creek at 320 m elevation and spent four days at this base camp. Camp 3 was set up at approximately 600 m elevation by the Bird and Mammal Groups where they opportunistically collected botanical specimens. hese teams spent only one night at Camp 3 before they were rejoined by the rest of the expedition team hiking out of the mountains along a path that in places exceeded 600 m elevation. At Camps 1 and 2 reconnaissance trips were made into the surrounding forests, during which time plant specimens were collected and vegetation qualitatively and quantitatively sampled. Several 1000 m2 plots were set-up and sampled and involved measuring the diameter at base height (dbh) of trees in the delineated plots. Specimens collected were processed as herbarium specimens and were later dried at the primary base camp in a government quarters in Rakiraki Town. Fertile specimens were photographed before preliminary identiication was carried out. Vegetation survey he vegetation was surveyed by sampling trees found in ive 1000 m2 plots. he sites where the plots were placed were selected based on three criteria; 1) the area was undisturbed or disturbed to a minor extent; 2) the area was representative of the dominating topographic feature (i.e., creek lat, ridge top, slope) and; 3) the area was relatively accessible from the ield base camps. To facilitate sampling, ten 10 x 10 m subplots were marked of within each plot. hese subplots were usually aligned in a straight line, but because it was sometimes diicult to ind a suitable 100 m long patch of homogeneous vegetation, the subplots were occasionally arranged in a diferent pattern (depending upon the situation). Once the subplot boundaries were laid out, the ield crew went through and measured every tree with its diameter at breast height (dbh) greater than 5 cm. his was done by means of a “dbh tape” wrapped around the trunk at breast height (ca. 1.6m). hese measurements along with the identity of the trees were recorded. If the tree could not be immediately identiied, lowers, fruits, and/or leaves were collected by means of long poles or by someone climbing the trunk. Voucher specimens were collected, including those plants that could not be identiied in the ield, for further taxonomical treatment back at the Herbarium at the University of the South Paciic in Suva. Non-tree species were also recorded in each of the plots. hese primarily included terrestrial ferns, herbs, epiphytes (mostly orchids, ferns and fern allies), lianas, and shrubs. he tree data for the ive plots sampled is shown in Appendix 2. To produce the tree plot data tables in Appendix 2, the total basal areas (the cross sectional area of the trunk at breast height) for all species were determined by adding up the dbh measurements of all the individual trees. his is displayed in the column headed “Basal Area.” he species were arranged from highest to lowest basal area. he column headed “No. of Trees,” is the total number of trees of each species found in the plot. his is an indicator of frequency, but the trees may be small and have a low overall dominance because of relatively small dbhs. he third column, “No.>15 cm,” is an indicator of typical tree size. If all of the trees of a species are under 15 cm dbh, this often indicates that the tree is small and not a canopy species. he Botanical Surveys Flora survey he lora survey involved the compilation of a comprehensive annotated checklist of plants (see Appendix 1) based on qualitative ield observations and the quantitative assessment of vegetation growth status and plant distributions observed in and around the sections of the mountain range visited. In addition to the qualitative and quantitative surveys, fertile (bearing fruits and/or lowers) and sterile specimen samples were collected, labeled and brought back to the ield base camps from the vegetation survey plots. he samples were trimmed or arranged to the requisite size of herbarium voucher specimens and placed between sheets of newspaper numbered according to ield notes. All collected specimens were then prepared for drying at the main A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 37 Chapter 1 last column, “Rel. Dom.” (relative dominance), is the parameter for determining “dominance.” It is obtained by dividing the basal area of each species by the total basal area of all trees in the plot. he total basal area of all trees in the plot is found in the lower right-hand corner of the table. RESULTS_______________________________ Flora A total of 418 plant taxa (including eight undetermined angiosperm species) were recorded for the Nakauvadra Range (see Appendices 1 and 2). Of the recorded species, 338 were native and 80 were alien species. he 338 native taxa recorded included ferns and their allies (75 species), gymnosperms (5 species), and angiosperms (258 species), and could be divided into two groups; (i) indigenous species (200 species), and (ii) endemic species (138 species). his equates to an endemicity of 41% of the native lora and 34% for the entire lora. Two species of particular interest were Degeneria roseiflora (rare on Viti Levua) and Neoalsomitra integrifoliola (rare in Fiji). he alien species were divided into two groups: those that were aboriginal introductions (22 species) and modern introductions (58 species). he four aboriginal introductions that have become naturalized include Cordyline fruticosa, Syzygium malaccense, Artocarpus altilis and Aleurites molucana. Similarly the exotic weeds Sporobolus diander, Pennisetum polystachyon, Panicum maximum and Derris malaccensis have become naturalized. Despite the high number of alien species recorded, the overall abundance of the native lora and intact status of the vegetation on the mountain range will make further botanical studies for the area very interesting. Vegetation he vegetation of the study area in Nakauvadra Range can be divided into several entities based upon the type or habit of species that dominate (e.g., trees, grasses, etc.), elevation, topography and species composition. During the ieldwork, four principle vegetation types based on Mueller- Dombois and Fosberg (1998) (not including the distinctly disturbed communities, such as plantations) could be distinguished: (1) Talasiga Vegetation, (2) Lowland Rainforest, (3) Upland Rainforest, and (4) Cloud 38 Forest. Talasiga vegetation his community is anthropogenic in nature (i.e., created by human activities). he term talasiga (“sun burnt land” in Fijian) is the term applied to the iremodiied or ire-degraded grasslands and fernlands that cover much of the dry side of the larger Fijian islands (Parham 1972, Smith 1979). Fires, mostly intentionally set, regularly devastate this community, preventing the successful re-establishment of native tree species. Talasiga covers about a third of the area of the two main Fijian islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, mostly in the poorer, eroded areas of the dry zone on the western sides of these islands. he lower elevations fringes (100 – 250 m.a.s.l.) of the Nakauvadra Range are covered with talasiga vegetation especially along the slopes and ridges. Sections of this vegetation type were only briely surveyed as it is highly disturbed and will continue to be disturbed. he lora is largely dominated by hardy, ire-resistant ferns and alien herbaceous species, mostly grasses. Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) divided this plant community into several associations, based upon which fern or grass species dominate. he Nakauvadra talasiga its best within the association referred to as “Sporobolus indicus (Wire Grass) Grassland.” he two dominant grass species typically are Sporobolus indicus and Dichantium caricosum with an occasional patch of the introduced Pennisetum polystachyon. Approximately 50 other species were also recorded here, but none of them with any abundance approaching that of the two above-mentioned grasses. he creek valley is covered with mixed forest vegetation comprising the common introduced Albizia saman, Albizia lebbeck and Mangifera indica, and the native Elattostachys falcata, Alstonia vitiensis, Glochidion seemannii, Alphitonia spp. and Mussaenda raiateensis. his area remains forested as it is not prone to becoming alight during a bush ire. Along the upper fringes of the talasiga grassland, savannah-like vegetation was observed. Here shrubs and/or trees were common and included some of the more common succession trees like Commersonia bartramia, Tarenna sambucina the two Alphitonia species and Macaranga harveyana. Also included are Aleurites molucana, Bischofia javanica, Cananga odorata and Hibiscus tiliaceus. Shrubs included Acalypha repanda, A. insulana, Morinda citrifolia, Psidium guajava, Syzygium malaccense, Glochidion A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Botanical Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji spp. Mussaenda raiateensis. Herbs and vines included Curcuma longa, Zingiber zerumbet, Heliconia paka, Nephrolepis spp., Christella harveyi, Dioscorea bulbifera, D. alata, Merremia peltata, Ipomoea indica, Mucuna platyphylla, Entada phaseoloides, Citrus spp., Musa x paradisiaca subsp. sapientum, Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Elastostema spp. Lowland rainforest vegetation (LRV) he majority (about 65%) of the Nakauvadra Range is covered by this vegetation community and can be observed from as low as 200 m to roughly 500 m.a.s.l. Not all the LRV observed was primary forest as seen by the species composition in some areas. he occurrence of plants such as Aleurites molucana (candlenut), Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Syzygium malaccense (Malay apple), Vietchia joannis, Bischofia javanica, Cananga odorata, Citrus spp., Codiaeum variegatum and Dioscorea nummularia and D. alata in the area indicate centuries of human inluence and habitation. In certain sections of the LRV these plants are common enough to classify the vegetation as “agro-forest,” (vegetation that is intermediate between native forest and plantation). Segments of these agroforest systems were observed along the “traditional highways” used by the survey team to access the mountain range. In other sections of the LRV further away from the traditional highway stands of primary forest were observed. Five plots of LRV were sampled during the present study. LRV in the study area was not homogeneous due to variations in elevation, topography, and degree of historical and present disturbances. Based on these variations and variations in species composition, three main variations of LRV were identiied in the ive plots. hey were “Creek Flat” forest type due to its occurrence on alluvial soil near streams; “Slope Forest” forest type due to its presence on slopes; and “Ridge Forest” forest type due to its presence on distinct ridges. Creek Flat Forest Type (Plot 1). his forest type was probably disturbed in the past by natural events such as loods and cyclones. A total of 172 trees (with dbhs > 5 cm) representing 44 species (see Appendix 2) were recorded in the plot. By far the most common tree species in the plot was the subcanopy or understory tree Gironniera celtidifolia, which had more than three times as many individuals as any other species (44 individuals). he other common subcanopy and understory trees in the making up over 50% of all trees encountered included Kingiodendron polycarpum (12), Dillenia biflora (11), Litsea sp. (c.f. mellifera) (11) and Pagiantha thurstonii (10). In terms of dominance Endiandra elaeocarpa was ranked irst (about 16% relative dominance with only eight trees). Second was Dysoxylum sp. (11% relative dominance but with only one tree), followed by Kingiodendron polycarpum (10% relative dominance with 12 trees) followed by Gironniera celtidifolia (8% relative dominance but with 44 trees). Slope Forest Type (Plot 2). his forest type was situated on a slope near Camp 1 at an elevation of 330 m. A total of 168 trees (with dbhs > 5 cm) representing 40 species (see Appendix 2) were recorded from the plot. he most common tree species found in was the subcanopy tree Gironniera celtidifolia (38 individuals). his was followed by Vietchia vitiensis (18), Myristica castaneifolia (12), Garcinia myrtifolia (9) and Pagiantha thurstonii (8). hese ive species represented more than 50% of trees found in the area. he dominant tree species was Aleurites molucana (15% relative dominance). he next ive dominant tree species were Dillenia biflora (10%), G. celtidifolia (10%), Syzygium c.f. curvistylis (9%) and Endospermum macrophyllum (8%) which combined, contributed to 50% of the total biomass of trees in the plot. he presence of the species A. molucana, D. biflora, V. joannis and the common occurrence of the subcanopy trees P. thurstonii and G. celtidifolia are characteristic of “disturbed forest.” his forest type had either been cleared deliberately by humans or through natural disasters like cyclone and loods or both in the recent past. Slope Forest Type (Secondary Forest) (Plot 3). his forest type was situated on a slope near the Camp 2 at an elevation of 320 m (similar to Plot 2). A total of 161 trees (with dbhs > 5 cm) representing 30 species (see Appendix 2) were recorded from the plot. he most common as well as most dominant species was Gironniera celtidifolia. his one species comprised 45% (72 individuals) of all the trees present with a relative dominance of 16%. he next most dominant species was Glochidion sp. with 14% relative dominance followed by Dysoxylum richii and Elattostachys falcate, both of which are common canopy trees in disturbed forest. he presence of B. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 39 Chapter 1 javanica, Syzygium malaccense, D. biflora and Citrus maxima further substantiates our conclusion that this plot was an agro-forest. It may have been cleared in the recent past for cultivating herbaceous crops, which did not persist once the forest canopy returned. Ridge Forest Type (Primary Forest) (Plot 4). his forest type was situated on a ridge above the Camp 2 at an elevation of 440 m. A total of 213 trees (with dbhs > 5 cm) representing 50 species (see Appendix 2) were recorded in the plot. he most common tree found in the forest type was the palm Vietchia vitiensis (35 individuals). Five other common trees observed included Parinari insularum (20), Gironniera celtidifolia (16) followed by Pagiantha thurstonii, Myristica castaneifolia and Endiandra sp. each with 11 indivduals. hese six tree species make up 50% (105 individuals) of all trees observed in the 1000 m2 plot. Plots 4 and 5 (discussed next) are the only plots where Gironniera celtidifolia was not the most common species. he dominant tree species was Parinari insularum (21%). he next four most dominant species were Dysoxylum richii (10%), Syzygium sp. (7%), Pagiantha thurstonii (6%), and Myristica castaneifolia (5%) and contributed to 50% of the dominant trees in the plot. his plot contained 50 tree species with trunks at least 5 cm dbh, which is distinctly higher than in disturbed forests plots (compare Plot 3 above, with 30 species). Ridge Dakua Forest Type (Primary) (Plot 5). his forest type was located on a ridge at 425 m elevation. his forest type can also be encountered in the higher elevations of lowland vegetation (ca. 400-650 m) and to some extent in upland vegetation (ca. 650900 m) in Fiji’s high island forests. A total of 162 trees (with dbhs > 5 cm) representing 56 species (see Appendix 2) were recorded in the plot. his was the highest species richness recorded for any plot. he most common tree species in the plot was Baccaurea pulvinata with 24 individuals. his was followed by Vietchia vitiensis (21), Myristica castaneifolia (9), Aglaia sp. (8), Dysoxylum sp., Planchonella sp., Cyathea hornei and Rapanea sp. (with 7 individuals each). hese eight species make up 60% (90 individuals) of all trees observed in the plot. A unique feature about this forest type is that it is dominated by Agathis vitiensis (32% relative dominance with only two trees). his is a giant of the forest. It tends to occur in patches and the small 40 numbers present are augmented by the huge size of the individual trees. While not unusual, having at least eight trees growing close to each other with an average dbh of 100 cm (range 81-134 cm) is now a rarity in Fiji’s forests. he next four dominant species Geissois ternata (7%), Metrosideros collina (7%), Myristica castaneifolia (5%) and Elattostachys falcata (5%) in addition to A. vitiensis make up more than half of the dominant trees observed in the plot. Both Geissois ternata and Metrosideros collina are typically upland and/or cloud forest vegetation species in Fiji and their presence in this lower elevation forest is not unusual. All ive vegetation plots had between 49 and 59 trees (average 52 trees/plot) with dbhs greater than 15 cm, so there was little diference in this aspect. Higher elevation vegetation and forest types he vegetation types observed at elevations above 500 m were a mix of upland and/or cloud forest vegetation types. Due to the short period spent in the area no quantitative analyses were carried out. At a summit close to Camp 3, the overall vegetation was generally stunted with trees growing on average from 2-4 m tall. In the more exposed areas, the sprawling fern Oleandra neriiformis was dominant. Tree trunks and branches were covered with mosses, epiphytic orchids and ferns. Some common tree species associated with cloud forest that were observed included Podocarpus affinis and Syzygium c.f. effusum (primary indicator species for cloud forest systems especially the latter with its distinctive drip tips). Other common tree species observed included Vietchia vitiensis, Fagraea beteroana, Podocarpus neriifolius, Spiraeanthemum sp., Alstonia montana, Metrosideros collina, Cyathea alata, Scaevola floribunda and Freycinetia urvilleana. Further up the ridge prior to coming out of the mountain range, the vegetation is typical of that found in upland vegetation. Tree/shrub species growing here are relatively stunted with heights of up to 8 m. Here, as in the cloud forest, the tree trunks and branches were covered with epiphytic mosses, lichens, orchids, Lycopodium and ferns. Various Selaginella spp., sprawling and/or scandent ferns like Pteris spp., Gleichenia spp., and Elastostema australe dominate the ground cover. Some of the more shrubby trees species like Ficus theophrastoides, F. vitiensis, several Psychotria spp. and Dysoxylum spp., were also observed. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Botanical Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Vines and epiphytes Vines, both trunk climbers (which ascend directly up a trunk by means of adventitious roots that adhere to the bark) and lianas (woody vines that twine around tree trunks and branches to ascend into the canopy), are characteristic of tropical rainforest. Epiphytes were common in the LRV, but were limited by the relative dry conditions in those areas compared to the wetter conditions in the higher elevation forest. Some epiphytes grew on tree trunks in the forest shade, but most of them were found on branches high up in the canopy (and were diicult to spot from the ground) where they get more sunlight. he number of vines recorded in the LRV plots averaged 14.5 per plot, and the number of ferns averaged 16 per plot. Ground cover was not signiicantly diferent in the diferent sites with ground ferns being the predominant terrestrial group. Alien plants What was notable about the Nakauvadra forested area surveyed was the small number of weedy alien species found overall in areas above 400 m elevation. Most of the alien plants found here were deliberately recently introduced by locals and included fruit trees like Mangifera indica, Bambusa simplex, Musa x paradisica, and Artocarpus altilis which has become naturalized. hose that are considered aboriginal introductions include Aleurites molucana, Citrus spp., Cordyline fruticosa and Codiaeum variegatum which have become naturalized. Most of the invasive plant species encountered were observed along creek embankments and currently used traditional tracks and include some of the more serious invasive species like Spathodea campanulata, Lantana camara, Arunda donax, Mikania micrantha and Clidemia hirta. DISCUSSION__________________________________ he negative impacts of regular (seasonal) burning of vegetation on valleys, slopes and ridges next to villages and farming communities along the base of the Nakauvadra Range over the years has seen the steady upward receding of the ire-line almost to the top of the Nakauvadra Range. his has resulted in the complete transformation of the native vegetation to talasiga grassland. Eighty alien species were recorded in the talasiga vegetation type including invasive plant species like Spathodea campanulata, Albizia lebbeck, A. saman and Leucaena leucocephala. his grassland is a major pathway for alien plants into the more intact forest of the mountain range. It is also a ire hazard especially during a prolonged dry season. Few alien weedy species were found in the forest, the most common of which were Blechum pyramidatum (blechum), Crassocephalum crepidioides (thick head), Mikania micrantha (mile-a-minute vine), Clidemia hirta (Koster’s curse), and Piper aduncum. Most of the weedy species, with the exception of P. aduncum were found in the streambeds where sunny conditions prevail during much of the day, rather than in the shady forest. One of the worst weedy species in Fijian forests is Spathodea campanulata (African tulip-tree) but only few individuals of this species were observed, mostly on the sunny margins of streams. It was much more common in plantations and fallow areas around the local villages and settlements. Most of these alien weedy plants were brought in by horses used by the locals for hunting and ishing. he forests in Nakauvadra are relatively pristine, judging by the form of the vegetation (closed canopy forest) as well as the relative absence of alien weeds. he two Slope Forest Types (Plots 2 and 3) are secondary forest and register on average the lowest total tree basal area (38,000 sq. cm). his indicates that the trees in general are smaller (trunk size) when compared to the trees observed in the Creek Valley (Plot 1) and Ridge Forest Types (Plots 4 and 5) with the average total basal area of 51,000 sq. cm. Plot 5 is described as a Dakua Forest because several very large trees of the species Agathis vitiensis were found growing close to each other on this ridge. Two other forest types were also observed in areas not quantitatively assessed where a single species clearly dominated the area. hese can be refereed to as Metrosideros (Vuga) Forest and Pandanus (Vadra) Forest. Despite the pristine outlook of the overall forest, the higher elevation section (> 450 m) of the mountain range has forest systems that are clearly primary forest. he overall 34% endemicity of the lora during the survey indicates that the plant communities in the area are typical of that found in Fiji’s native forests (Watkins 1994). If the grassland lora was excluded, endemicity would have been much higher with a lora comparable to that observed in highly diverse (native plants) areas like Waisoi in Namosi (Tuiwawa 1999) and Wabu in Naitasiri (Tuiwawa 2004). A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 41 Chapter 1 he endemic D. roseiflora in the family Degeneriaceae is common on Taveuni and Vanua Levu but is rare and restricted to the drier high altitude forests on Viti Levu. Prior to this survey it was only previously recorded from the Mt Evans Range in the Ba Province, Viti Levu. N. integrifoliola has only been collected once by Horne in 1878 from Bua, Vanua Levu. his species currently has an eastern distributional limit of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Queensland (Smith 1981). his disjunct range is extraordinary. For it to be found in the Nakauvadra Range (only the second recording for Fiji in the past 100 years) not only reairms its existence and conirms its range extension in Fiji but augurs well “unusual” lora of the Nakauvadra Range. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS________ Future surveys he following future recommendations can be made: 1) More specimen collections are needed as only a very small area was accessed during this survey. he checklist of vascular species present is only preliminary and probably includes only 70% of the species present. he orchids are much underrepresented, since many of the species are restricted to the tops of trees, where they were not observed (Fiji has about 150 native species of orchid). Epiphytic ferns are also under-represented for the same reasons. 2) More plots need to be sampled at much higher elevations (cloud forest) and further away from known traditional highways. he more diicult groups proved to be the genera Psychotria (76 native species in Fiji), Syzygium (28 native species), and the Lauraceae family (34 native species). 3) It is particularly necessary that future collections be carried out at least four months away from November to allow for seasonal variation. Conservation Recommendations range should be carried out as soon as possible. REFERENCES_________________________________ Brownlie, G. 1977. he Pteridophyte lora of Fiji. In: Cramer, J. (ed.) Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia, Vol. 55. A. R. Gantner verlag KG, Germany. Mueller-Dombois, D. and R. Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Paciic Islands. Springer- Verlag, New York. Smith, A.C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova - A new lora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Vol. 1. Paciic Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. _____. 1981. Flora Vitiensis Nova - A new lora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Vol. 2. Paciic Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. _____. 1985. Flora Vitiensis Nova - A new lora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Vol. 3. Paciic Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. _____. 1988. Flora Vitiensis Nova - A new lora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Vol. 4. Paciic Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. _____. 1991. Flora Vitiensis Nova - A new lora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Vol. 5. Paciic Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Tuiwawa, M. V. 1999. he Flora, Ecology and Conservation of the Botanical Biodiversity of Waisoi and the Southeastern Slopes of the Korobasabasaga Range in Namosi Province, Fiji. Unpublished MSc. hesis, University of the South Paciic, Suva , Fiji. Tuiwawa, M. V. and A. Naikatini. 2004. Flora Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed.) Baseline Flora and fauna survey of Wabu Forest Reserve, Naitasiri, Fiji Islands, 16th – 22nd November 2003. SPRH Biodiversity and Ethnobiodiversity Report 4/2004. South Paciic Regional Herbarium, Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic. Watkins, A. J. 1994. A biogeographic database for seed plants of Fiji: A preliminary communication. S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci. 14: 75-96. Because of the relative pristine nature of the forests in the Nakauvadra Range and the fact that this is one of the last remaining intact forest systems on the drier side of Viti Levu, every efort should be made to work with the local villagers and relevant Government institutions to preserve these forests. Local community awareness on the negative impacts of uncontrolled burning and access into the mountain 42 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Chapter 2 Herpetofauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Nunia Thomas Team members: Miniroti (Narara Village), Kalaveti Ravulo (Vatukacevaceva Village) SUMMARY A total of 11 frog and reptile species were documented from the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji representing approximately 33% of Fiji’s terrestrial herpetofauna. his included three frog species, four skinks and four geckoes. In addition, skin sheds from the snake Candoia bibroni were also observed. All species were observed in relatively low abundances. Four of the species are endemic to Fiji (Platymantis vitianus, P. vitiensis, Emoia concolor and E. parkeri). With the exception of the introduced cane toad (Bufo marinus), and the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris), the remaining species are native to Fiji and the Paciic. his survey documented the only known extant population of P. vitianus on Viti Levu. his frog species was thought to have been extirpated from Viti Levu in the last 20 years and as such this result highlights the conservation signiicance of the Nakauvadra Range for herpetofauna biodiversity. Several threats to herpetofauna in the area were identiied and are discussed in light of potential mitigation measures and future research. INTRODUCTION Fiji is home to 32 species of terrestrial herpetofauna: three frogs (two endemic species), three iguanas (two endemics), four snakes (two endemics), 10 geckoes (two endemics) and 10 skinks (six endemics). Over forty percent of these are endemic, with possibly more (new) endemic species to be described in near future. Despite the wide geographic distribution of Fiji’s native terrestrial herpetofauna, their conservation status is unknown. With the exception of the Fiji crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis) and the Fiji ground frog (Platymantis vitianus), there has been no recent assessment of the population status of any of Fiji’s terrestrial herpetofauna other than accounts from opportunistic surveys conducted by visiting biologists and through baseline biodiversity surveys (Bustard 1970, Gibbons 1981, 1984, Zug 1985, 1991, Zug and Ineich 1983, Harlow and Biciloa 2001, Worthy 2001, Morrison 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, Kuruyawa et al. 2004, Morrison et al. 2004, Morrison 2005, homas, 2006; Harlow et al. 2007). To date, no speciic herpetofauna surveys have been conducted in the Naukauvadra Range and consequently, its herpetofauna diversity is poorly known. he primary aim of this survey was to identify the herpetofauna species found in the Nakauvadra Range using a combination of nocturnal and diurnal active surveys. In addition, we also wanted to identify potential threats to the herpetofauna community in the area. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 43 Chapter 2 Reason for the RAP Survey In April 2008, the Fiji Water Foundation and Conservation International (CI) entered into a three-year grant agreement to protect the natural resources of Viti Levu, Fiji. One of the three key objectives of the Fiji Water Grant involves technical assessments and community consultations to facilitate conservation initiatives within the Yaqara and Nakauvadra watersheds. As part of the implementation of this objective, one of the key components was to gain an understanding of the existing environment in the Yaqara Valley and conduct an ecological baseline assessment of the Nakauvadra Range. METHODS AND SITE DESCRIPTION Site descriptions Site 3: Volivoli Creek, Nabiya and Toluwalu Streams – Base Camp 1 (Map 3) Nabiya Stream and Toluwalu Stream are at the headwaters of Volivoli Creek; Base camp 1 (Camp 1) was located along the stream bank at the conluence of the two streams. A notable feature of the Toluwalu and Nabiya streams, and Volivoli Creek was the decrease in water level each consecutive day during the expedition. Toluwalu Stream and Nabiya Stream were at least 20 m wide, with an average depth of 1.5 m when lowing with water. Dry sections of the two stream beds (approximately 100 m in length) were intermittent with non-stagnant water pools which appeared to ilter water under the soil onto the next pool (Plate 1). Undisrupted water low along the Volivoli Creek began again approximately 100 m downstream from Camp 1. he sections of Volivoli Creek downstream of Camp 1 were dominated by big boulders (Plate 2) within the streams whilst the (dry) sections: Nabiya Stream and Toluwalu Stream were dominated by cobbles, pebbles and exposed bedrock (Plate 3). Both the vegetation and stream characteristics displayed ideal herpetofauna habitats observed in other parts of Fiji: good riparian vegetation cover, big boulders, tree branches overhanging the river, fallen tree branches along the river bank, dense canopy cover within the forest, ground cover dominated by saplings, rotting wood, leaf litter, trees with large crevices and tree trunks and branches covered with epiphytes. 44 Sites 3a and 3b were surveyed on two dates: 20th and 21st November 2008. Sites 3c and 3e were surveyed during the diurnal surveys on the 19th, 20th, 21st and 22nd November, 2008 (see Appendix 3 for site locations). Sites 5, 6 and 7: Vuniqesa Stream and dried up tributary – Base camp 2 (Map 3) he width of Vuniqesa Stream was at least 10 m. Unlike Nabiya Stream and Toluwalu Stream, Vuniqesa Stream did not have many dry sections (Plate 4). Base camp 2 (Camp 2) was located adjacent to a steep rile and pools section of the river, with vegetation overhanging the stream. Sections of the river 100 m upstream (Site 5a) and downstream of Camp 2 (Site 5c) were dominated by big boulders. Interestingly, the section just above 100 m upstream of Camp 2 was relatively lat and open, and clear of the dense vegetation observed around the base camp. Both the vegetation and stream characteristics displayed ideal herpetofauna habitats (as described above for Camp 1). Sections of the river bank (behind Camp 2, Site 5c) surveyed at night were probably ephemeral creeks, as they were water-logged and quite swampy. Diurnal surveys were conducted inland, along ridges and upstream along the Vuniqesa Stream (Sites 6 and 7). Survey methods Opportunistic diurnal and standardized nocturnal visual encounter survey methods were used to assess the biodiversity of the herpetofauna and ensuing threats in the survey sites. Skinks are more likely to be seen during day, particularly during hot and sunny conditions. Diurnal surveys were thus conducted along trails enroute to Camps 1 and 2, along stream edges, and in forest habitats surveyed by other survey teams in the expedition: vegetation and lora survey sites, mammal (native and invasive) survey sites, and freshwater fauna survey sites (Map 3). he surveys began at 08:00 and ended at 17:00 each day from the 19th – 22nd; 26th and 27th of November, 2008. he team had a minimum of two searchers at any one time. Frogs and geckoes are active and more visible at night. Standardized 2-hour nocturnal surveys with a minimum of three observers at any one time were A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Herpetofauna Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji conducted along the two major streams (Nabiya Stream and Vuniqesa Stream – two surveys) and their tributaries (Toluwalu Stream and a dried up tributary - two surveys) over four nights: 19th – 20th; 22nd – 23rd November, 2008 (Map 3). he standardized surveys usually commenced at around 20:00, ending two hours later. Captured ground and tree frogs were given a frog number (NT#) and toe-clipped. he toe-clips were stored in ethanol vials for future DNA analysis. Environmental variables such as air temperature o ( C), water temperature (oC), weather conditions (rain) and cloud cover (%) were taken at the beginning and end of each survey. Habitat characteristics and other basic ecological and biological information of herpetofauna found were recorded. Observations on possible threats to herpetofauna species and populations were also noted. RESULTS Environmental Variables Weather conditions were ine with occasional showers and heavy downpour during the last three days of the expedition. Average air and water temperatures recorded for the nocturnal surveys were both 22.5 oC. Species Diversity and Abundance General herpetofauna Eleven species were observed throughout the survey Table 2.1: List of herpetofauna species observed in the Nakauvadra Range from 18 – 27th November, 2008. Latin Name Common Name Fijian Name Status Bufo marinus Cane toad Boto ni valagi, Boto karokaro Introduced and invasive Platymantis vitianus Fiji ground frog * a Boto ni Viti, Dreli Endemic Platymantis vitiensis Fiji tree frog * a Ula Endemic Emoia concolor Fiji green tree skink Mokosari Endemic Emoia cyanura Brown-tailed copper-striped skink Mokosari Native Emoia impar Blue-tailed copper-tailed skink Mokosari Native Emoia parkeri Fiji copper headed skink a Mokosari Endemic Gehyra vorax Giant forest gecko Moko kabi, Boliti Native Frogs Reptiles Gehyra oceanica Oceanic gecko Moko kabi Native Lepidodactylus lugubris Mourning gecko Moko kabi Introduced and invasive Nactus pelagicus Skink-toed gecko Native * Denotes species listed as threatened under IUCN (2006) a Denotes species listed as endangered under Fiji’s list of 50 endangered species (2008) (NatureFiji- MareqetiViti, www.natureiji.org). A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 45 Chapter 2 gecko (Gehyra vorax), Oceanic gecko (G. oceanica) and Skink-toed gecko (Nactus pelagicus); and two are introduced and invasive species: Cane toad (Bufo marinus) and Mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris). Herpetofauna species were present at all the sites (Table 2.2). Almost all species were found at both major river systems: Volivoli and Vuniqesa, except for the introduced gecko L. lugubris which was only found on Wainibe Stream, about 20 mintues from (Table 2.1), including two frogs, one toad, four skinks, and four geckoes (captured and identiied). Two shed snake skins (possibly Candoia bibroni) were also observed. Four of these are endemic to Fiji: Fiji ground frog (Platymantis vitianus), Fiji tree frog (P. vitiensis), Fiji copper headed skink (Emoia parkeri) and the Fiji green tree skink (E. concolor); ive are native: Blue-tailed copper-striped skink (E. impar), Browntailed copper-striped skink (E. cyanura), Giant forest Table 2.2: List of herpetofauna species observed in the Nakauvadra Range, Fiji, from 18 – 27th November, 2008. B. marinus E. concolor 2 E. cyanura/ E. impar 2 3 1 1 1 6 7 Track 3: Base camp 2 to Upstream Vuniqesa 2 6 1 12 E. parkeri 1 2 G. vorax 1 1 N. pelagicus 2 12 3 G. oceanica 2 2 2 1 L. lugubris 1 1 P. vitianus 9 6 3 P. vitiensis 2 1 5 2 18 11 25 2 2 Vunisea Village. he lizards E. cyanura, E. parkeri and G. vorax were only found around Volivoli but not at Vuniqesa; E. impar and G. oceanica were only found around Vuniqesa but not at Volivoli. Despite having an equal number of standard survey nights, more frogs were found around Volivoli Stream (Sites 3b and 3d) than around Vuniqesa Stream (Sites 5a and 5c). here were more P. vitianus 46 4 1 4 5 2 E. impar Total 8 Uluisuvani 5 Track 2: Base camp 2 to Narara 4 Vuniqesa 3 Wainibe 3 Total Nabiya 2 Volivoli/ Nabiya/ Toluwalu 1 Va’ava’a Ridge Site Track 1: Vatukacevaceva to Base Camp 1 Species 1 18 10 1 1 65 found around Volivoli Creek (Nabiya Stream and Toluwalu Stream); but more P. vitiensis encountered around Vuniqesa Stream, particularly along the ridges, during the day. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Herpetofauna Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji ANNOTATED LIST OF HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES Frogs Eighteen P. vitianus and three P. vitiensis were observed during the standard 2-hour surveys. Five out of the ten P. vitiensis captured during the diurnal surveys were not measured. Snout-vent lengths (SVL) for the twenty three P. vitianus and P. vitiensis measured were variable, ranging from 26.8 - 76.9 mm and 18.7 - 33.7 mm, respectively (Appendix 4). Frog weights ranged from 2 - 41.9 g for P. vitianus and from <0.5 - 2.5 g for P. vitiensis. One gravid female P. vitianus was captured (NT# 22). All three species of anurans (Plate 5a-c) were only active at night, with occasional encounters of tree frogs (P. vitiensis) and cane toads (B. marinus) during the day. he ground frogs, P. vitianus, were observed on all four of the survey nights (Table 2.2); tree frogs and cane toads were observed on only two of these Table 2.3. Number of individuals observed or captured for each species at different times of the day in the Nakauvadra Range, Fiji. Species Total 7am - 9am B. marinus E. concolor 3 E. cyanura/E. impar 2 10am - 12pm 1pm - 3pm 7pm - 9pm 9pm - 11pm 1 1 2 2 1 1 5 2 E. impar 11 1 E. parkeri 2 1 G. oceanica G. vorax 12 3 2 1 2 1 2 L. lugubris 1 N. pelagicus 1 3 P. vitianus 16 P. vitiensis Total 6 7 5 2 3 22 6 26 nights. he ground frogs (P. vitianus) and B. marinus were only observed within and along the stream banks and their tributaries whilst P. vitiensis were found both along streams and further inland along the ridges. Platymantis vitianus. he irst captured P. vitianus was found after it responded to calls by the observer (whistle) over a period of ive minutes on the irst night of survey. Hereafter this method, in addition to looking for eyeshine in frogs, was used. he (small) calling P. vitianus were found on tree roots or sapling branches with dense vegetation cover whilst the larger P. vitianus found via eyeshine were sitting on rocks and boulders along the stream bank. Calls of the P. vitianus were heard every night, 4 2 18 10 4 65 particularly along the dry sections of the stream bed and further inland from the stream where the sound of the water low could not drown out the calls. Platymantis vitiensis. here were no P. vitiensis calls heard during the surveys. Fiji tree frogs (P. vitiensis) encountered during the day were captured from their diurnal retreats (in leaf axils of epiphytes: climbing pandanus [Freycinetia sp.]; birds nest ferns and orchids). Individuals captured at night were usually found on the leaves of epiphytes and tree saplings. Bufo marinus. Cane toads (B. marinus) encountered during the day was also found in their diurnal retreats: beneath boulders along the river A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 47 Chapter 2 banks. here was a notably low encounter of adult cane toads; however, several pools along the major streams were laden with strings of eggs and tadpoles. Reptiles Skinks. Skink encounter rates were quite low (Table 2.2), and were only observed during the day, particularly between 10am and 12pm (Table 2.3). Ground skinks E. cyanura and E. impar (Plate 6) were mainly found foraging on the ground, on boulders, and fallen tree branches. he high number of E. impar observed at Site 5b was simply due to a change in the search efort, when the observer opted to sit along the stream bank for two hours. It was only then that this species could be observed in relatively higher abundance (11 individuals). he arboreal skinks, E. parkeri (Plate 7) and E. concolor were mainly encountered from 0.2-15 m above the ground on tree trunks, and branches after sitting in ideal skink habitat within forested areas for more than 20 minutes. Geckoes. he Giant forest gecko (G. vorax – Plate 8) and the introduced and invasive L. lugubris were encountered during the day, at Site 3c and Site 4 (near Vunisea Village) respectively. hey were both found beneath tree bark whilst G. oceanica and N. pelagicus were found on bedrock along the stream bank at night. A G. vorax was found within Camp 1 on the irst day of survey. DISCUSSION All the herpetofauna species found in this expedition are new records for the Nakauvadra Range, and have been recorded from sites of similar altitude within Viti Levu (e.g., Wabu Forest Reserve, Monasavu). Both Volivoli and Vuniqesa Streams, and their surrounding habitats appear to support a healthy herpetofauna population, and possibly more species than encountered during this survey. he relatively low encounter rates of herpetofauna observed in this survey is, as the results suggest, a relection of the search method used. Two alternative methods of diurnal surveys were used: 1. Sitting and observing at one site over a certain period of time; and 2. Conducting opportunistic surveys and accompanying other taxa survey teams. 48 he former method produced a higher abundance of one species only (E. impar) but low diversity whilst the latter produced a higher diversity of species, but low abundance. A combination of these two methods in future surveys would undoubtedly provide a more realistic indication of the diversity and abundance of herpetofauna in the Nakauvadra Range. Interesting Species or Genera Fiji Ground Frogs (P. vitianus) he discovery of the endemic ground frog, P. vitianus, [listed as Endangered (EN) under IUCN criteria (IUCN 2006)] during this survey is the irst record on Viti Levu in over 20 years. Naturalists working in Fiji over the past 20 years had widely accepted that two species: the Fiji ground frog (P. vitianus) and the megabotoniviti (P. megabotoniviti) had been consumed to extinction by the introduced mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) and humans on Vanua Levu and Viti Levu (Watling and Pernetta 1979, Ryan 2000, Morley et al. 2004, Morrison et al. 2004, Morrison 2005). Local herpetologists have in the past ive years searched for surviving populations of the ground frogs in likely frog habitats on both Vanua Levu and Viti Levu. Whilst surveys on Vanua Levu had proved successful with discoveries of ground frog populations (Morrison et al. 2004), the Viti Levu surveys into the Savura, Sovi Basin, Wabu and Tomaniivi Forest reserves suggested that these frogs had indeed perished on Viti Levu (Morrison 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2004, 2006, homas 2006). he discovery of this species in the Nakauvadra Range, and its absence from other less disturbed sites previously surveyed within Viti Levu (e.g., Wabu Forest Reserve, Sovi Basin), suggests that in addition to being able to co-exist with cane toads, mongoose and tree frogs, P. vitianus can also survive in habitats that have been historically modiied or signiicantly impacted by humans (mainly early Fiji settlers). Another contributing factor that could be further investigated is the vegetation and lora of the Nakauvadra Range in comparison other current Fiji ground frog sites in Fiji. he behaviour of the ground frogs in the Nakauvadra Range is similar to that of the ground frogs on Viwa Island (Tailevu), Gau Island and Taveuni Island, in being slightly more naïve and easier to capture than the ground frogs on Vanua Levu. he ground frogs on Vanua Levu (Waisali A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Herpetofauna Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Forest Reserve) are evasive and cryptic; usually jumping away as soon as they have been spotlighted. he village guides also informed the team that they do not diferentiate between ground frogs and tree frogs, using the general term ula. he word ula means ‘to jump’ in the dialect of the villages around the Nakauvadra Range. Other villages within the province of Naitasiri also use this name. More research will need to be done within the Nakauvadra Range and in other parts of Viti Levu to determine why this species persists in the area. It would be interesting to follow the forest systems to which Nakauvadra is/ was connected to; previous records of Fiji ground frogs within Viti Levu have been made from Naitasiri (1862) and Namosi (1898) (Graefe 1986, de Marzan 1987). Fiji Tree Frog (P. vitiensis) he Fiji tree frog is known to only occur on Ovalau, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu in Fiji (Osborne 2007). Its macro- and microhabitat distribution within the Nakauvadra Range is similar to its distribution in other parts of Fiji (e.g., Wabu Forest Reserve, Sovi Basin, Savura Forest Reserve) where they are usually found along streams, and further inland along ridges. he Nakauvadra Range and certain parts of Ovalau and Vanua Levu are the only sites in which tree frogs and ground frogs co-exist. A comparison of sites on Vanua Levu, Ovalau and Viti Levu may reveal the interactions between these two species. Endemic Skinks (E. concolor and E. parkeri) he presence of the two arboreal endemic skinks, E. concolor and E. parkeri is encouraging. he main diiculty faced when searching for these two skinks was their distance from the ground – two specimens were observed up to 15 m above the ground, in a tree. heir arboreal nature and the dense epiphytes on the trees often made it diicult to identify them. Identiication was only possible when using a pair of binoculars. Using sticky board traps in trees may help with their capture in future surveys. Cane toads (B. marinus) he cane toad (B. marinus) is listed in the Invasive Species Specialist Group’s (2004) list of 100 of the world’s worst invasive species (Lowe et al. 2004). Few adults were encountered during the survey however, some stagnant pools were illed with numerous tadpoles and strings of cane toad eggs. he cane toads may not be a direct threat to the herpetofauna populations in Nakauvadra, however, it would be interesting to study their interactions with the ground frogs and compare with the ground frog-cane toad interactions on Viwa Island (Tailevu, homas 2007). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS________ Identiied threats to herpetofauna in the Nakauvadra Range Several threats were identiied during the survey: 1. Destruction of both the tree and ground frog breeding habitats by feral pigs and horses brought in by pig hunters. 2. he presence of the introduced mongoose Herpestes fuscus (Plate 9) and rats pose a potential threat. here is no evidence as yet on the direct impacts of the mongoose and rats on herpetofauna populations in the Nakauvadra Range; and the rediscovery of the ground frog questions the previously hypothesized negative impacts of mongoose on the frogs. A more detailed survey is needed to address this issue. 3. Ground frogs have been consumed by Fijians in the past. here is a possibility this is still the case; a traditional knowledge interview with pig hunters from the surrounding villages could conirm this. General recommendations 1. here is a need for more specialized research on the herpetofauna of the Nakauvadra Range; particularly to study their ecological role within the Nakauvadra Range and how this compares with populations in other parts of Fiji. 2. Improve/increase ield survey methods and efort. In particular for frog surveys: a. Establish several long term monitoring plots or transects to survey the diferent species, both along the stream banks and inland. b. Find out range of frog distribution along the stream: A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 49 Chapter 2 i. Distance from villages; ii. Distance along head waters of the streams; iii. Perpendicular distance from the stream bank to determine the range of overlap between the three species; c. Interview nearby villages to ind out if frogs have any signiicant traditional roles; or if there are any folklore that mentions frogs. d. Record and document frog calls; ind out if females also call as reported in the frogs on Viwa Island (Tailevu) and Taveuni (Kuruyawa et al. 2004). e. Find out where females ground frogs are laying their eggs. f. Document the phenology of frogs in the Nakauvadra Range and compare with other sites in Fiji. g. Collect DNA tissue and compare with other sites in Fiji. For reptile surveys: h. As above (a-c, e-g). i. Surveys to be conducted in areas undisturbed by survey teams of other taxa. Skinks can be quite evasive, scrambling away to hide under leaf litter or boulders and rocks at the slightest disturbance. j. he Giant forest gecko (G. vorax) is more likely to be found under the bark of live trees rather than dead trees and therefore future surveys should place more emphasis on live trees. k. Binoculars and sticky board traps should be used for surveying arboreal skinks (and snakes). 3. Awareness of the importance of the Nakauvadra Range as a refuge for the Fiji ground frog (P. vitianus) will also need to be carried out to local pig hunters and villagers who frequent the Nakauvadra forest. REFERENCES_________________________________ Bustard, H. 1970. Turtles and an Iguana in Fiji. Oryx 10: 317-322. de Marzan, J. 1987. Customs and Beliefs in Upland 50 Vitilevu. Domodomo 5 (3&4): 28-62. Gibbons, J. R. H. 1981. he Biogeography of Brachylophus (Iguanidae), Including the Description of a New Species, B. vitiensis, from Fiji. J. Herpetol. 15(3): 255-273. Graefe, E. 1986. Travels in the Interior of the Island of Vitilevu. Domodomo 4(3): 98- 140. Harlow, P. S., M. Fisher, M.Tuiwawa, P. N. Biciloa, J. M. Palmeirim, C. Mersai, S. Naidu, A. Naikatini, B. haman, J Niukula, and E. Strand. 2007. he Decline of the Endemic Fijian Crested Iguana Brachylophus vitiensis in the Yasawa and Mamanuca Archipelagos, Western Fiji. Oryx 41(1): 44-50. Harlow, P. S. and P. N. Biciloa. 2001. Abundance of the Fijian Crested Iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis) on Two Islands. Biol. Conserv. 98: 223-231. Kuruyawa, J., T. Osborne, N. homas, I. Rounds, C. Morrison and C. Morley, C. 2004. Distribution, abundance and conservation status of the Fijian Ground Frog (Platymantis vitianus). Unpublished report for the BP Conservation Programme. Lowe, S., M. Browne, S. Boudjelas, M. De Poorter. 2004. 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species: A selection from the global invasive species database. he Invasive Species Specialist Group, Species Survival Commission, World Conservation Union. Morrison, C. 2003a. A Field Guide to the Herpetofauna of Fiji. Institute of Applied Sciences, he University of the South Paciic, Suva. Morrison, C. 2003b. Herpetofauna Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) Baseline Fauna and Flora Survey Wabu Reserve, November 16-22, 2003. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Morrison, C. 2003c. Herpetofauna Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) Baseline Fauna and Flora Survey of the Sovi Basin in Naitasiri 5th – 17th May, 2003. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Morrison, C. 2004. Herpetofauna Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) Second Fauna and Flora Survey of the Sovi Basin, Naitasiri 13th – 20th October, 2004. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Morrison, C. 2005. Distribution and Diversity of Fiji’s Terrestrial Herpetofauna: Implications for A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Herpetofauna Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Forest Conservation. Pac. Sci. 59(4): 481-489. Morrison, C. 2006. Herpetofauna Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) hird Fauna and Flora Surveyand Establishment of Long-term Monitoring Plots in the Sovi Basin, Naitasiri 20th – 31st March, 2006. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Morrison, C., A. Naikatini, N. homas, I. Rounds, B. haman, and J. Niukula. 2004. Rediscovery of an Endangered Frog Platymantis vitianus, on Mainland Fiji: Implications for Conservation and Management. Pac. Con. Biol. 10: 237 – 240. Osborne, T. 2007. Distribution, Abundance and Phenology of the Fiji Tree Frog (Platymantis vitiensis) in Savura, Viti Levu, Fiji. Unpublished M.Sc. hesis. University of the South Paciic, Suva. Ryan, P. 2000. Fiji’s Natural Heritage. Exisle Publishing Limited. Auckland. Pernetta, J. C. and D. Watling. 1979. he Introduced and Native Terrestrial Vertebrates of Fiji. Pac. Sci. 32: 223-244. homas, N. 2006. Herpetofauna Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) Baseline Flora and Fauna Survey and Establishment of Long-term Monitoring Plots in Wabu Nature Reserve, Naitasiri 30th January – 10th February, 2006. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. homas, N. 2007. Distribution and Abundance of the Fijian Ground Frog (Platymantis vitianus) and the Cane Toad (Chaunus [Bufo] marinus) on Viwa Island, Tailevu, Fiji. Unpublished MSc. hesis, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Tuiwawa, M. and A. Naikatini. 2003. Flora Report. In: Morrison, C. (ed) Baseline Fauna and Flora Survey Wabu Reserve, November 16-22, 2003. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva. Worthy, T. H. 2001. A New Species of Platymantis (Anura: Ranidae) from Quaternary Deposits on Viti Levu, Fiji. Palaentology 44(4): 665-680. Zug, G. R. 1985. A New Skink (Reptilia: Sauria: Leiolopisma) from Fiji. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 98(1): 221-231. Zug, G. R. 1991. Lizards of Fiji: Natural History and Systematics. Bishop Mus. Bull. Zool. 2: 85-86. Zug, G.R. and I. Ineich. 1993. Review of the Biology and Morphology of the Fijian Bola Ogmodon vitianus (Elapidae). he Snake. 23: A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 51 Chapter 3 Preliminary Baseline Survey of the Avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Dick Watling Team members: Kalaveti Ravulo (Vatukacevaceva village), with additional records by Alifereti Naikatini (SPRH) and Vido Senivasa (Fiji Department of Forestry) SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ his report is of a preliminary baseline survey of the avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra, Viti Levu. he report provides observations and comments on the avifauna observed in the study area, as well as observations from other known surveys from the Range. A total of 34 bird species were recorded in the surveys, 13 of which were endemic species. Four were introduced species and the remainder native. hree of Viti Levu’s globally threatened species were recorded – Long Legged Warbler (Endangered, auditory record only); Black-faced Shrikebill and the Friendly Ground-Dove which was quite common. Notable species not recorded included the Masked Shining Parrot and the Polynesian Starling, though these have both been recorded previously. For birds, the Nakauvadra Range has the same conservation signiicance as other large forest blocks on Viti Levu. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ he Nakauvadra Range is a forest refuge, completely surrounded by cleared habitats with the shortest distance to another forest block being approximately four kilometers to the southwest. It is not a large forest block, approximately 114 km2, and so the avifaunal composition is of interest in that it may not be large enough to maintain viable populations of species which have large home ranges and/or are poor dispersers over non-forest habitats. Examples of these are the Masked Shining Parrot and the Giant Forest Honeyeater. he only previous record of bird observations in the Nakauvadra Range is Masibalavu (2004). METHODS AND STUDY AREA___________________________________________________________ Study area and base camps he study area comprised the area traversed by the survey roads and paths as marked on Map 4. he team hiked from Vatukacevaceva village to Camp 1 on the conluence of the Nabiya and Toluwalu Streams which are headwaters of the Volivoli Creek on November 18. We spent three nights at Camp 1, then hiked down to Vunisea village on November 21. On November 22 we hiked from the village to Camp 2 on the Vuniqesa Creek. Dick Watling returned to Vunisea village on November 23. Alifereti Naikatini and Vido Senivasa remained at Camp 2 and hiked out to Camp 3 on 52 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Preliminary Baseline Survey of the Avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji November 25. hey spent one night at Camp 3 and hiked out of the mountain range on November 26 to Narara Village near Rakiraki town. Bird observations were categorized according to three diferent observational methods: 1. Standardised Transects: Observations during timed transects along paths and river/stream beds – these are then expressed as encounter rates (number of individuals observed divided by number of Field methods he team enjoyed ine weather throughout the ieldwork. Table 3.1. Observation hours in different habitats and for different methods Observation Date Time 18-Nov 0620-0750 Standardised Transect Observation Site Forest Forest Incidental Open 55 165 1145-1615 19-Nov 275 0500-0755 180 0900-1145 165 1145-1500 20-Nov 195 1650-1750 60 0500-0755 175 0845-1205 200 1310-1615 185 1700-1800 21-Nov 0515-0710 60 115 0900-1050 22-Nov 110 1050-1300 70 1400-1440 40 1500-1620 80 0930-1000 30 1000-1200 120 1200-1330 1545-1800 23-Nov Forest 90 0750-0845 0900-1145 Forest Edge/ Gardens 90 135 0555-0930 1030-1130 1130-1230 Total Obs Time 1195 255 200 345 935 Hours of obs Time 4.3 3.3 5.8 15.6 19.9 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 53 Chapter 3 standardised observer hours, Masibalavu and Dutson 2006) ; – ENDANGERED – when a species is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future; – VULNERABLE – a species is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future; – NEAR THREATENED – is a subcategory of LOWER RISK category, for species which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable; and, – DATA DEFICIENT – there is insuicient information to make an evaluation. 2. Observations during timed periods at an observation post with a 200o view over the forest; and, 3. Incidental observations around camp and when hiking between camps. A total of 39.8 hours was spent on forest observations, approximately half of which was on standardized transects. 5.8 hours was spent in ‘forest edge – garden’ habitats and 3.3 hours in open country (Table 3.1). Conservation Signiicance In the annotated accounts and discussion of the observations, prominence is given to the Conservation Signiicance of the species concerned. Conservation Signiicance is based on the following: l Endemicity – Single Island, National, Regional or Regional Near-endemic for those birds whose distribution is primarily within the region but which extends to a few islands or an island group outside the region. 54 l l Introduced and naturalized species, some of these species pose a threat to native species and generally increase in abundance as a result of habitat disturbance, especially loss of forest. National Conservation Status – IUCN’s Global Status is used wherever a threatened category has been applied, especially for national endemic species. However, the majority of species in Fiji are resident and breed in other Paciic island countries or even further aield. In such cases the Global Status does not relect the often difering status in each country, which is very important for the countries concerned. To rectify this, two categories for the conservation status of the Fijian populations of these birds are used. l Global hreat Status - according to the `2008 IUCN Red List of hreatened Species’. he threatened species categories now used in Red Data Books and Red Lists have been in place, with some modiication, for over 30 years. Since their introduction these categories have become widely recognised internationally, and the Red List categories provide an easily and widely understood method for highlighting those species under higher extinction risk, so as to focus attention on the need for or eicacy of existing conservation measures. A simpliied description of the categories applicable for this guide are as follows (refer http://www.redlist.org for a full description and the annually updated status): RESULTS AND DISCUSSION_____________________ – CRITICALLY ENDANGERED - when a species is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future; Species Recorded A total of 34 species were recorded in the Nakauvadra Range, primarily in forest habitats but including peripheral open habitats. hirteen of these are Fijian hese follow Watling (2001): – At Risk - the higher category for birds considered to be severely threatened in Fiji; – Conservation Concern – a lower category for birds whose status is known to be declining, under threat or very vulnerable because of small population size, introduced predators or competitors, or adverse land use practices here in Fiji. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Preliminary Baseline Survey of the Avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji endemic species (Table 3.2). he composition is similar to other large forest blocks on Viti Levu – given the small amount of survey undertaken at Nakauvadra (this survey and Masibalavu 2004). Neither the Red-throated Lorikeet (Critically Endangered) nor the Pink-billed Parrotinch (Endangered), two of Viti Levu’s most threatened birds was observed, however, it is not possible to state that any of Fiji’s forest birds are absent from the Nakauvadra Range, as not all have as yet been recorded. Two species, the Friendly Ground Dove and the Black-faced Shrikebill are categorized as Vulnerable, while the Long-legged Warbler categorized as Endangered was recorded by AN and VS but not by DW. No Masked Shining Parrots, Polynesian Starlings or Fan-tailed Cuckoos were observed during this survey, however, with the exception of the Fan-tailed Cuckoo, they had previously been observed in the Nakauvadra Range by Masibalavu (2004). It was most surprising not to ind the Masked Shining Parrot during the survey and it is clearly a very rare bird in the Nakauvadra Range as Masibalavu only saw two individuals in 2004. he reason for this is unclear and it may be that the Nakauvadra forest block is too small to maintain viable populations of certain species, this is well worth follow up work. he Fan-tailed Cuckoo is a secretive bird except when in song and is rarely recorded but is doubtless present at low densities. Similarly, the Polynesian Starling is usually uncommon to rare in the forests of the larger islands and so is quite often missed on short surveys. Collared Lory were rare on this survey but there were no noteworthy trees in bloom i.e. vuga (Metrosideros sp.) which attract and concentrate these wandering nectivores. he presence of a good population of Friendly Ground Doves (mostly seen rather than heard) is noteworthy, especially since Masibalavu did not record them in 2004. Neither did he record Fiji Goshawks and White-throated Pigeons during his survey, both of which are likely to be commoner at the forest edge than in true forest. here was a real diference in common species around the two campsites, the Giant Forest Honeyeater was absent at the Vuniqesa campsite (Camp 2) but were abundant in the “better” forest at the Vunilaci campsite (Camp 1). Golden Whistlers and the Island hrush were also much less common around the Vuniseqa campsite than the Vunilaci campsite. Scarlet Robins, Lesser Shrikebills and Whiterumped Swiftlets were found nesting during the survey. A ledgling Wattled Honeyeater was also observed. CONCLUSION AND CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE_ he birds of the Nakauvadra Range are similar in composition and approximate abundance, and hence conservation signiicance, to other large forest blocks on Viti Levu. Diferences between this survey and that of Masibalavu (2004) can be attributed to the brevity of both surveys. Further surveys would be required to determine the presence/absence of such rare species as the Pink-billed Parrot-inch and the Red-throated Lorikeet and to conirm the presence of the Long-legged Warbler. he apparent rarity of the Masked Shining Parrot is of great interest and worthy of further study. he size of the Nakauvadra Range forest and its complete isolation from other forest blocks makes it vulnerable to extirpation of species which are poor dispersers over non-forest habitats and have large home ranges such as the Masked Shining Parrot and the Giant Forest Honeyeater. his appears not to have happened as yet but any further erosion of forest size or quality will increase the likelihood of this happening. REFERENCES_________________________________ Masibalavu, V. 2004. Birds of the Nakauvadra Range. Report 27, Birdlife International IBA Programme. Suva. Masibalavu, V. and G. Dutson. 2006. Important Bird Areas in Fiji: Conserving Fiji’s Natural Heritage. Birdlife International, Suva Watling, D. 2001. Guide to the Birds of Fiji and the Western Paciic. Environment Consultants Fiji, Suva. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 55 Chapter 3 Table 3.2. Land and Freshwater Birds of Viti Levu with those Species Observed at Nakauvadra. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 56 Common Name Scientiic Name Paciic Black Duck Reef Heron White-faced Heron Fiji Goshawk Paciic Harrier Peregrine Falcon White-thoated Pigeon Spotted Turtle-dove Friendly Ground-dove Barking Pigeon Many-coloured Fruit-dove Golden Dove Collared Lory Red-throated Lorikeet Masked Shining Parrot Fan-tailed Cuckoo Barn Owl White-rumped Swiftlet White-collared Kingisher Polynesian Triller Red-vented Bulbul Island hrush Fiji Bushwarbler Long-legged Warbler Anas superciliosa Egretta sacra Ardea novaehollandiae Accipiter rufitorques Circus approximans Falco peregrinus Columba vitiensis Streptopelia chinensis Gallicolumba stairii Ducula latrans Ptilinopus perousii Chrysoenas luteovirens Phigys solitarius Charmosyna amabilis Prospeia personata Cacomantis flabelliformis Tyto alba Aerodramus spodiopygia Todiramphus chloris Lalage maculosa Pycnonotus cafer Turdus poliocephalus Vitia ruficapilla Trichocichla rufa N N RI N N N N I N N N N N N N N N N N N I N N N Streaked Fantail Slaty Monarch Lesser Shrikebill Black-faced Shrikebill Rhipidura spilodera Mayrornis lessoni Clytorhynchus vitiensis Clytorhynchus nigrogularis N N N N A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Origin Endemicity hreat Status E RE E RE E E E ES V CE NT RE* E E E RE* E RE E V Preliminary Baseline Survey of the Avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Encounter Rate (this survey; standardised transect, forest only) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.10 Encounter Rate (Masibalavu 2004) Abundance (combined Comment (observations of this surveys) survey) 0 0 0 0 0.17 Not observed Observed at forest edge only Not observed R U 0 U 0.85 2.61 0.30 2.36 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.26 0.60 1.41 0.00 1.31 2.21 0.00 0 1.91 0.35 1.74 0.61 0 0.2 0 0 1.13 0.43 0.95 0.17 0.69 1.48 0 C V F C F 0.70 0.95 0.60 0.10 0.95 0.95 0.09 0.26 U C F C U C C Observed in Open Area only Not observed Not observed Not observed Not observed Feathers only recorded Observed at forest edge Not observed by DW; but heard by AN/VS C C U U A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 57 Chapter 3 Common Name Scientiic Name Origin Endemicity Myiagra vanikorensis Myiagra azureocapilla Petroica multicolor Pachycephala pectoralis Zosterops explorator Zosterops lateralis Myzomela jugularis N N N N N N N RE* E E Foulehaio carunculata Gymnomyza viridis N N RE* E Erythrura pealii Erythrura kleinschmidti Amandava amandava Aplonis tabuensis Acridotheres tristis N N I N I E ES 32 Vanikoro broadbill Blue-crested Broadbill Scarlet Robin Golden Whistler Fiji White-eye Silvereye Orange-breasted Myzomela Wattled Honeyeater Giant Forest Honeyeater Fiji Parrotinch Pink-billed Parrotinch Red Avadavat Polynesian Starling Common Mynah 33 34 Jungle Mynah Fiji Woodswallow Acridotheres fuscus Artamus mentalis I N 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 KEY hreat Status E V RE* E Grey Shading - Species known from Viti Levu but not recorded during the Nakauvadra forest survey Origin: N - native I - introduced Endemicity: E - Fiji endemic ES - Endemic to a single island (and ofshore islets) RE - Regional endemic (F, T, S, AS, Tu, N, To, W & F) RE* - Regional endemic as above with outliers in other neighbouring island nations Threatened status: IUCN Red List 2008 CE - Critically Endangered; E - Endangered; V - Vulnerable; NT - Near hreatened Encounter Rate: Number of individuals recorded on standardised transects (i.e. in forest only) divided by 19.9 - the number of hours spent in these transects (Masibalavu & Dutson, 2006) Abundance: V = very common if encounter rate >2.0; C = Common 0.8 - 2.0; F = Fairly common 0.4 - 0.8; U = Uncommon 0.1 - 0.4; R = Rare <0.1>0. Based on (Masibalavu & Dutson 2006) and averaged for this survey and Masibalavu (2004). 58 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Preliminary Baseline Survey of the Avifauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Encounter Rate (this survey; standardised transect, forest only) 0.40 0.60 0.70 1.36 3.67 0.00 1.46 Encounter Rate (Masibalavu 2004) Abundance (combined Comment (observations of this surveys) survey) 0.26 0.61 0.78 0.35 2.08 0.17 1.30 U F F C V R C 3.16 1.96 2.6 0.43 V C 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0 0 0.26 0 R 0.00 0.00 0 0.35 U R Observed at forest edge only Not observed Not observed Not observed Observed only in villages and farmland Observed only in open habitats Not observed on standardized transect A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 59 Chapter 4 Bats of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Alivereti Naikatini Team members: Jone Niukula (National Trust of Fiji), Senivalati Vido (Fiji Department of Forestry), Tama I Ratu (Vatukacevaceva village) SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ his survey is probably one of the irst bat surveys to be carried out in the Nakauvadra Range. hree main survey techniques were used: mist nets and harp traps, bat detector and general observations. Only three species of bats were recorded: Pteropus tonganus, P. samoensis and Emballonura semicaudata. he latter two species are listed in the IUCN Red List as Near hreatened and Endangered respectively. No roost of any of the bat species was recorded within the area covered during the survey. More surveys are needed to locate possible roosting sites and monitor the presence of other bat species that forage within the area. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ here are ifteen species of mammals native to Fiji, of which six are terrestrial (bats belonging to the order Chiroptera) and nine are marine (whales belonging to the order Cetacea) (IUCN 2007). here are fourteen non-native species of mammals present in Fiji, all of which are terrestrial and have been introduced to Fiji in the last 3000 years since the arrival of humans (Pernetta and Watling 1978). his survey focussed on the native bat species present in the Nakauvadra Range. To date there has been no record of terrestrial mammal research conducted in the Nakauvadra Range area. Fiji’s native bats are poorly studied, yet this group should be of high conservation importance as they include an endemic monospeciic genus (Mirimiri acrodonta) and several near endemic species. Additionally, Fiji’s bats play an essential role as seed dispersers, pollinators of lowers and in controlling nocturnal insect populations in rainforest and other terrestrial ecosystems (Manueli 2001, Palmeirim et al. 2007). Some of the previous work on bats in Fiji includes a collecting trip in 1990–1991 by the Australian Museum, the results of which are published in Flannery (1995); work by Dr. Jorge Palmeirim (Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal) in 2000-2001 (Palmeirim et al. 2007); and studies on Pteropus samoenis by Dr. Ruth Utzurrum (Department of Wildlife and Marine Resources, American Samoa, Pagopago) in 2002. he work by Palmeirim and the Australian Museum provide good baseline data for bat research in Fiji. he main objectives of this survey were to: a) produce a checklist of the bat species found in the Nakauvadra Range; b) focus on the rare and endangered species and their habitats; and c) gather data on species distribution, diversity and abundance. 60 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Bats of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji METHODS AND STUDY AREA____________________ hree main methods were used to survey the bat fauna of Nakauvadra: 1) Mist Mist nets netsand andharp harptraps, traps; 2) Bat Bat detectors detectorsand, and; 3) General General observation. observation. he location of sites and surveys are shown on Map 5. Mist nets and harp traps A 12 x 2.7 m mist net was used to trap larger fruit bats and a harp trap was used to trap smaller bats. he use of nets and harp traps was mainly to verify the identity of the bat species. he mist net and harp trap were used to sample bats in lowland forest (< 400 m elevation) and upland cloud forest (> 500 m).he mist net and harp trap were only set up for use from dusk to dawn and were regularly checked every hour. Bat detector A Tranquillity II bat detector was used to detect the presence of microbats in caves..It was also used during the night around the camp by walking a 50 m non-linear transect to detect foraging microbats. General observations We made general observations while walking through and around the forest during the day and hiking from one camp to another. Any species of fruit bat observed were noted. RESULTS ____________________ Species found Only three three species speciesofofbats bats(50% (50%ofofthe thebat batspecies species found in Fiji) Fiji) were wererecorded recordedduring duringthe thesurvey. survey. hey are presented presentedin inTable Table4.1 4.1along alongwith withtheir their conservation status conservation statusasasassessed assessedbybythe theIUCN IUCN. (International Unionspecies for Conservation of Nature). he most common observed was P. tonganus he most observedfor wasa P.period tonganus with morecommon than 200species bats recorded of withhour morejust thanbefore 200 bats recorded a period of one one sunset from afor clearing along hour just before from a clearing Vuniqesa Creek sunset at Camp 2 on 24th ofalong November. Vuniqesa Creek Camp that 2 onhour 24/11/09. All thein All the bats seenatduring were lying bats seen that hour were lying the in from the from the during south, from an area outside Nakauvadra south, from an area outside the Nakauvadra Range. Range. P. samoenis was rare and during the eight days P. samoenis and during the eight daysthe in the in the ield was onlyrare four were observed during day. ield only were observed during the day. Onlythe Only threefour E. semicaudata were detected during three E. semicaudata were detected during the survey. survey. Table 4.1. Checklist of species of native bats found in the Nakauvadra Range and their IUCN status Common Name Insular lying fox Scientiic Name Pteropus tonganus IUCN Status Lower risk Samoan lying fox Pteropus samoensis Polynesian sheathtailed bat Emballonura semicaudata Effectiveness of different ield methods Harp traps and mist nets were generally unsuccessful in capturing bats during the survey period (Table 4.2). he bat detector was able to detect the sheathtailed bat Emballonura semicaudata which can be detected between 30 – 35 KHz (Palmeirim pers. comm.). he fruit bats Pteropus tonganus and P. samoensis were easily observed during the survey during general observations. Near hreatened Endangered DISCUSSION Notes Common, but no roost within Nakauvadra Rare, no roost recorded Only noted using bat detector, no observed or caught _________________ Pteropus tonganus his was the most common species recorded in Nakauvadra however, we did not ind a roost. he local guides also did not recall recording any big roosts in the area surveyed. All the P. tonganus observed were noted to be lying in from the south. his could represent a major roost which should be located as it has an impact on the vegetation of A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 61 Chapter 4 Table 4.2. Summary of areas where mist net, harp trap and bat detector transects were located and their results Date Site Elevation 19/11 20/11 Takina Vunilaci (Camp 1) 756m 305m No bats No bats Method Mist trap No bats No bats 23/11 Vuniqesa (Camp 2) 270m No bats No bats 24/11 25/11 Vuniqesa (Camp 2) Rock Lookout 270m 610m No bats No bats No bats No bats the Nakauvadra Range. Some Pteropus bat species are known to forage from about three to close to eight kilometres from their camps (Markus and Hall 2004). his could be a factor causing P. tonganus roosts to be outside Nakauvadra as they need larger areas to forage but this need to be further studied. Much of the vegetation system of the Nakauvadra Range is still well intact and could support roosts of P. tonganus. Future studies of the area should aim to encompass a much larger study area in order to locate roost sites. Pteropus samoensis Only four individuals were observed which is relatively low. However, studies done on this species in American Samoa have shown that it is rarer than P. tonganus with the density ranging from 118 bats/km² (Brook 2001). his species roosts in smaller colonies and prefers to roost in primary forest compared to P. tonganus which tends to forage in agro-forest and cultivated forest areas as well (Banack 1998). he presence of P. samoensis indicates that the forest on the Nakauvadra Range is still well intact. here is a need for future surveys to estimate the population size and identify roost sites of this species within the Nakauvadra Range. Emballonura semicaudata he absence of caves from the Nakauvadra area surveyed means that there are fewer chances of insectivorous bats being found as they only roost in caves (Tarburton 2002). However, three bats of this species were noted using the bat detector which indicates that they ly in to forage at Nakauvadra. 62 Harp Trap Bat detector No bats Emballonura semicaudata Emballonura semicaudata No bats No bats he closest known roost is in the Yasawa Islands which is more than 50 km away (Palmeirim et al. 2007). his species, like P. samoensis, prefers to forage in well forested areas (Esselstyn et al. 2004). here could be caves in the Nakauvadra area which we did not ind in this survey and future surveys of this species should make the location of caves a priority. One problem encountered during this survey was that the majority of the locals had mistaken this species for the White-rumped swiftlet (Aerodramus spodiopygius), a bird which also nests in caves and sometimes also under large boulder and clif overhangs. Sites which the locals had marked out on the map where caves are found were actually clif and large boulder overhangs where the White-rumped swiftlets were nesting (Map 5). CONCLUSIONS AND CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS ____________________ Conservation signiicance of the Nakauvadra range for bats he conservation signiicance of the bats of the Nakauvadra Range is diicult to determine at this stage as there is still more research and surveys that need to be carried out. Only three species were recorded, two of which are listed as vulnerable and endangered. No roosts for any species were located during this survey and there is a need for more surveys spread over the Nakauvadra Range to locate existing roosts and bat colonies. At this stage there is a need to conserve this area because (i) bats use it as a A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Bats of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji feeding ground and (ii) there are still large tracts of intact native vegetation cover. his is similar to the indings of other large forest areas surveyed including the Sovi Basin and the Wabu Reserve. Future work More surveys need to be conducted to locate the presence of any roosting colonies of each bat species and also to monitor population size of the diferent bat species foraging in the Nakauvadra Range. Since no roosts for any of the three species were located during this survey it was impossible to carry out density or abundance estimates for bats in the area. Other species like the Fiji blossom bat (Notopteris macdonaldi) could also be present in the Nakauvadra Range. here is also a need for community awareness and education in the villages and communities surrounding the Nakauvadra Range. People need to know the diference between the White-rumped swiftlets and the Polynesian- sheath tail bats and how to tell whether bats are present in a cave. Local communities also need to be taught about the importance of bats and their ecological role, something which has been neglected in many Fijian communities where bats are not seen as important species, but only a nuisance. REFERENCES the Black lying-fox (Pteropus alecto) in the urban landscape of Brisbane, Queensland. Wildl. Res. 31(3): 345- 355. Palmeirim, J. M., A. Champion, A. Naikatini, J. Niukula, M. Tuiwawa, M. Fisher, M. YabakiGounder, S. horsteinsdottir, S. Qalovaki, S., and T. Dunn. 2007. Distribution, status and conservation of the bats of the Fiji Islands. Oryx 41(4): 509- 519. Palmeirim, J. M. pers. comm. Dr Jorge M. Palmeirim, Department of Biologia Animal / Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749- 016, Lisbon, Portugal. (email: Palmeirim@fc.ul.pt) Pernetta, J. C. and D. Watling. 1978. he introduced vertebrates and native vertebrates of Fiji. Pac. Sci. 32(3): 223-244. Tarburton, M. K. 2002. Demise of the Polynesian Sheath-tail Bat Emballonura semicaudata in Samoa. Micronesica 34: 105-108. ____________________ Banack, A.P. 1998. Diet selection and resource use by Flying foxes (Genus Pteropus) Ecology 79(6): 1949-1967. Brook, A. P. 2001. Population status and behaviour of the Samoan Flying Fox (Pteropus samoensis) on Tutuila Island, American Samoa. J. Zool. 254: 309-319. Esselstyn, J. A., G. J Wiles and A. Amar. 2004. Habitat use of the Paciic Sheath-tail bat (Emballonura semicaudata) of the Aguiguan, Mariana Islands. Acta Chiropt. 6(2): 303-308. Flannery, T. 1995. Mammals of the South-West Paciic and Moluccan Islands. Cornell University Press, New York . IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of hreatened Species. Available at <www.iucnredlist.org>. Accessed on 10 November 2007. Manueli, I. 2001 (February 10). Bats in danger of extinction. he Fiji Times, p.3. Markus, N and L. Hall. 2004. Foraging behaviour of A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 63 Chapter 5 mammal Fauna fauna of The invasive Invasive Mammal of the the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Jone Niukula Team members: Sevuloni Vanavana (Narara Village) SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ Using a combination of standard traps and opportunistic surveys, we recorded six invasive mammal species in the Nakauvadra Range. hese included two rat species (Rattus exulans and R. rattus), one mongoose (Herpestes fuscus), domestic horses (Aquus caballus), goats (Capra sp.) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Although most of these species were observed in very low densities, they were found throughout the area surveyed including fairly secluded and hard to reach regions on mountain ridges and denser forest. he inding of a decomposing mongoose that resembled the skull size of H. fuscus was the most interesting ind as its occurrence in Fiji was not conirmed until after the Nakauvadra survey (C. Morley pers. comm., Feb. 2009) however, its distributional range is yet to be veriied. Due to the size of the area and accessibility, eradication of most of these invasive mammal species is not feasible. However it may be possible to increase reforestation rates of the native lora through the removal and/or exclusion of goats from the area. Any remedial activities undertaken in the area will need to be done with the consent and co-operation of the local communities who use the forests as part of their sustainable livelihoods. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ “…humans rank among the most successful invasive mammal species….. he human invasion did not reach many Paciic Ocean islands until 1,000 to 2,000 years ago….. other mammal species accompanied the human invasions. Besides livestock like sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and horses, there were stowaway species like rats. Later, predators like the mongoose were deliberately introduced to help control the rats.” (Anon. 2009). he many trails through the Nakauvadra Range (many of which are still used today by pig hunters and ishermen) have opened up pathways for intrusion of various introduced and invasive species over many years in the past and continuing today. his is complimented by negative animal husbandry (animals allowed to graze freely over open country) and agriculture practices (deliberate burning of grassland) that occurs on its periphery. Introduced mammal species in Fiji Rodents are a major contributor to the extinction and endangerment of native animals and plants. his has been observed in many parts of the world. Apart from wiping out native populations by predation, rodents are also known to be major carriers of diseases and to distribute alien and invasive species which can be very destructive to indigenous ecosystems. here have been four species of rodents recorded in Fiji; Paciic Rats (Rattus exulans), Norway Rats (R. norvegicus), Ship Rats (R. rattus) and the House Mouse (Mus musculus). 64 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji The invasive mammal fauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji he Paciic and Ship rats are common forest dwellers, consuming a wide range of prey, including many invertebrates such as earthworms, centipedes, larvae of some butterlies and moths, ants, beetles, weevils, cicadas, snails, spiders, lizards and birds; and plant items such as leshy fruit, seeds, lowers, stems, and roots. hey may also prey on the eggs and young of forest birds. (Sherley 2000) One mongoose species was introduced to Fiji in the 1800s, Herpestes javanicus (Gorman 1975). he Small Indian Mongoose (H. javanicus) population in the Fiji Islands was established by an independent introduction of a single founding pair from the Calcutta region in 1883, after an attempted introduction in 1870 failed (Gorman 1975). his species is also responsible for the extinction of many species due to its mobility and ability to enter ground burrows and climb trees (personal observation). he presence of a second mongoose species was highlighted by Craig Morley in 2007 (Morley et al. 2007). It had earlier been reported as H. edwardsi by Paddy Ryan (1988) but was conirmed to be H. fuscus in 2009 (D. Simberlof and C. Morley pers. comm., Veron et al. in press). “Activity of this species in Fiji has not been studied, but it has been observed Fig. 5.1.Fig. (a) 5.1a First rat traprat transect setup andsetup (b) Second rat trap transect First trap transect in the morning and evening… and is believed to be nocturnal.” (Veron et al. in press). Survey objectives l To To determine determinethe thediversity diversityofofrodents rodentsininthe the Nakauvadra Range Nakauvadra Range; l To investigate investigatethe thepresence presenceofofother othernotorious notorious invasive mammals mammalssuch suchasasmongoose mongooseand andcats cats; andpropose proposehabitats habitatsand andareas areasforfor l Investigate Investigate and more detailed detailed studies studies. A presence-absence survey was conducted for invasive mammals in the area; with a standardized study conducted for rodents. Investigation for evidence of existence for mongoose, cats, and other mammals was opportunistically carried out. METHOD_____________________________________ Rodent Survey A basic method of capture and data collection was conducted as outlined in Cunningham and Moors (1983) “A Guide to the Identiication and Collection of New Zealand Rodents”. Metal snap traps were Fig. 5.1b Second rat trap transect A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 65 Chapter 5 used as they have been proved to be more efective due to their camoulaging nature and snapping tension in similar environments. Trapping data were recorded according to the “Trap data and Abundance” Sheet from Cunningham and Moors (1983); i.e., noting the presence of a rat, sprung and unsprung traps and the presence and absence of baits. hese data would provide an estimate as to the density of rodents in the area. Measurements of captured rats were carried out using vernier calipers and a 1 kg (x 5g) scale. he species and sex were determined for each captured animal along with an estimate of its age (based on body size). he area covered by the invasive mammal surveys are shown in Map 6. Transect Transect 1 Fifteen traps were set for two nights (19th & 20th November), beginning from beside the irst base camp (Camp 1), on the conluence of the Nabiya and Volivoli Creeks and running north up the slope at the back of the camp (Fig. 5.1a). Traps were baited with Table 5.1. Captured record sheet for Transects 1 & 2. (Record codes; S/BP - Sprung/Bait Present, OK/BP - Unsprung/Bait present Trap # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Transect 1 Night 1 OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP Transect 2 Night 2 OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP RAT OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP Night 3 OK/BP S/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP RAT OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP Night 4 OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP RAT OK/BP OK/BP OK/BP Table 5.2. Details for captured rodents Transect 1 2 2 66 Night 2 3 4 Trap # 10 5 right 8 right Species Rattus exulans R. rattus R. rattus A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Sex Male Male Male Weight 50g 135g 27g The invasive mammal fauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji roasted coconuts and positioned well under hanging boulders, large tree bases and below fallen logs, over a total distance of 280-300 m between 300-350 m a.s.l. Transect Transect 22 Eleven pairs of traps were set, two in each location marked on Fig. 5.1b above, for two nights (23rd & 24th November) using the same bait as for Transect 1. Traps were set on an uphill track from behind the second base camp site (Camp 2), climbing from an elevation of 240 m a.s.l. to close to 300 m a.s.l, on the eastern bank of Vavituka Creek. Five key elements of the skull (Nellis 1989, DeBlase and Martin 1984) were measured (Table 5.3); including the Condylo-basal length, the length of a skull that is measured from the anterior points of the premaxilla to the posterior surfaces of the occipital condyles (Fig. 5.2) and serves as a common indicator of body size (Simberlof et al. 2000), and hence species identity in this case. hese data present the larger size of this newly conirmed invader for Table 5.3. Five key measurements in identifying mammal species (taken from Deblase and Martin 1984) Entity Condylo-Basal Length Skull width Skull height Zygomatic breadth Maximum diameter of the upper canine Description From a line connecting the posteriormost projections of the occipital condyles to the prostheon Greatest width across the braincase posterior to the zygomatic arches From the foramen magnum to the attachment point between the sagittal and nuchal crests (or the mediam contact point between the squamosal and parietal bones) Greatest distance between the outer margins of the zygomatic arches Maximum breadth of one of the two upper canines Fiji; H. fuscus (S. Meiri pers. comm. April 2009, D. Simberlof pers. comm. April 2009) simply described as a large red/brown species. Measurement 79.9 mm 30.0 mm 18.2 mm 42.9 mm 5.0 mm Fig. 5.2. Condylo-basal length on skulls (taken from DeBlase and Martin 1984) Goats Mammals Other Goats (Capra sp.) are a key obstacle to the re-growth Goats of native forest in grassland-dominated areas that Goatsencroached (Capra sp.)well are atowards key obstacle the re-growth have to the to higher slopes of the native forest in grassland-dominated areas Nakauvadra Range. Goats were observedthat on haverocky encroached well towards to the and higher slopes the ridges above Narara Village close to of the Nakauvadra Range. Goats were observed on the legendary peak of ‘Uluda’. Goat scats were also the rockyclose ridges Narara Village andsettlements close to observed to above the ridge, above farming the legendary ‘Uluda’. Goat scats were also between Nararapeak and of Vatukacevaceva Villages. observed close to the ridge, above farming settlements between Narara and Vatukacevaceva Villages. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 67 Chapter 5 Other HorsesMammals Domesticated horses (Aquus caballus) in the Horses villages and farming settlements on the periphery Domesticated horsesRange (Aquus the villages of the Nakauvadra arecaballus) used as in transportation and farming settlements on the periphery of the means between villages and into the Nakauvadra Nakauvadra Rangehunting are usedparties as transportation forest facilitating and variousmeans between villages and into the Nakauvadra forest traditional practices. hese horses, with strong-minded facilitating hunting parties and various traditional owners, proved during the surveys that they are practices. horses, withinto strong-minded owners, capable ofhese reaching higher the forest, even proved during the surveys that they are capable of beyond the current trails. reaching higher into the forest, even beyond the Sticky seed producers such as Bidens spirosae current trails. on horse tails demonstrating the were recorded Sticky seed producers such asof Bidens spirosae were ability, although unintentional, horses to disperse recorded on horse tails demonstrating the ability, alien plant species into the forest, some of which although unintentional, of horses to disperse alien may be destructive to native species. plant species into the forest, some of which may be destructive to native species. Pigs Aside from listening to hunters’ numerous Pigs recollections of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) hunting Aside from listening to hunters’ operations, dug-up cool restingnumerous places for pigs were recollections of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) hunting observed under large hanging boulders, lat shady operations, dug-up cool resting places for were areas and beside bases of bigger trees. hepigs only observed under large hanging boulders, lat shady time an adult pig was viewed during this survey areas and beside bases of biggerfortrees. he only time was when a group of porters the survey team an adult pig was viewed during this survey was when displayed their catch while resting just below the aCamp group1oftowards porters Nayaulevu for the survey teamalong displayed their Village Volivoli catch while resting just below the Camp 1 towards Creek. Nayaulevu Village along Volivoli Creek. Dogs Dogs he wild pigs in the Nakauvadra Range attract he wildwho pigs are in the Nakauvadra Range attract hunters normally accompanied by hunting hunters who are normally accompanied by dogs (Canis familiaris). In cases similar to hunting horses, dogs In cases similar to horses, dogs (Canis may befamiliaris). unintentional agents of introduced dogs mayplant be unintentional agents of introduced invasive species. invasive plant species. Cats Cats Feral cats (Felis catus) were not observed during the Feral catus) were observed during the surveycats but(Felis are believed to not occur in the Nakauvadra survey occur inof thewildlife Nakauvadra forest. but Catsare arebelieved provento predators in forest. Cats are proven predators of wildlife in many many countries including Paciic Island nations countries PaciicofIsland leading toincluding the extinction manynations native leading species.to the extinction of many native species. CONCLUSIONS AND CONSERVATION CONCLUSIONS AND CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE _____________________________________ SIGNIFICANCE_______________________________ rat reproduces successfully in the in area evidenced Ship rat reproduces successfully theasarea as by the capture of capture a juvenileofon Transecton 2. Transect he evidenced by the a juvenile Indian BrownBrown Mongoose (Herpestes fuscus) occurs 2. he Indian Mongoose (Herpestes fuscus) in the forest and may well be co-existing with the occurs in the forest and may well be co-existing Smallthe Indian Mongoose (H. javanicus) despite the with Small Indian Mongoose (H. javanicus) latter’s non-sighting. he presencehe of these ive of despite the latter’s non-sighting. presence species poses a serious threat to native wildlife. hey these ive species poses a serious threat to native are particularly dangerous in island ecosystems wildlife. hey are particularly dangerous in island due to theirdue impacts on the survival birds ecosystems to their impacts on of thenative survival and animals because of their preying ability. As of native birds and animals because of their the Nakauvadra Range canNakauvadra be referred toRange as an island preying ability. As the can (it referred is a highto mountain range(itsurrounded by vast low be as an island is a high mountain grassland areas), the these species in the range surrounded byimpacts vast lowofgrassland areas), the area is potentially very serious. Consequently, the impacts of these species in the area is potentially impacts of rats and mongoose native wildlife in very serious. Consequently, theonimpacts of rats and the area may exacerbated mongoose onbe native wildlifewhen in thecompared area maytobeother large forested regions in Fiji. exacerbated when compared to other large forested In addition regions in Fiji. to the negative impacts of rats andInmongoose on the native fauna,impacts goats areofa rats major addition to negative and hindrance to the re-growth of native forest especially mongoose on native fauna, goats are a major on the periphery in the high rockyforest and grassland hindrance to the and re-growth of native areas of theonNakauvadra Range. especially the periphery and in the high rocky and grassland areas of the Nakauvadra Range. Conservation recommendations l It would recommendations be diicult to conduct eradication work Conservation for any of species as use of eradication the forest and It would bethese diicult to conduct encroachment of the local community is high work for any of these species as use of the forest thereby increasing of thethe chances of accidental and encroachment local community is re-introductions. Morethe detailed surveys over high thereby increasing chances of accidental a larger area (including those areas further re-introductions. More detailed surveys over commonthose use areas the local aaway largerfrom areathe (including areasoffurther community) advisable before away from theare common use areaseradication of the localof any of these are species is seriously considered. community) advisable before eradication of of these species is seriously considered. l any Potential reforestation sites should be identiied Potential reforestation should be identiied in consultation with thesites local communities. inGoats consultation withbethe local communities. should then removed and excluded Goats should then be removed from the proposed project sites.and heexcluded removal from the proposed project he removal of of goats will in itself lead sites. to a major regoats will in itself lead to a major re-establishment establishment of native trees and other lora ofwithout native costly trees and other lora without costly replanting exercises. replanting exercises. l Local communities should be made aware of Local communities should be made aware the impacts of invasive species on both localof the impacts of invasive species on local fauna and lora and encouraged to both reduce their fauna and in lora to reduce their activities the and areasencouraged where possible. activities in the areas where possible. Invasive mammals in the Nakauvadra Range Invasive mammals in the Nakauvadra Range he Ship Rats (Rattus rattus) and Paciic Rats (R. he Ship Rats (Rattus rattus) and Paciic Rats (R. exulans) co-exist in the Nakauvadra forest. he exulans) co-exist in the Nakauvadra forest. he Ship 68 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji The invasive mammal fauna of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji REFERENCES_______________________________ Anon. 2009. Mammals and Humans: Mammalian Invasives and Pests. Available at http://www. answers.com/topic/mammals-and-humansmammalian-invasives-and-pests. Accessed January, 2009. Cunningham, D. M., and P. J. Moors. 1983. A guide to the identiication and collection of New Zealand rodents. Occasional Publication No.4. N.Z. Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Afairs, Wellington. DeBlase, F. A. and R. L. Martin. 1984. Conservation database for lorises and pottos. Chapter: health database. Available at: www.loris-conservation. org/database/ Accessed March, 2009. Gorman, M. L. 1975. he diet of feral Herpestes auropunctatus (Carnivora: Viverridae) in the Fijian Islands. J. Zool. Lond.175: 273–278. Meiri, S. personal communication. NERC Centre for Population Biology Imperial College London Silwood Park Ascot, Berkshire, SL57PY UK . Morley, C. G., P. A. McLenachan and P. J. Lockhart. 2007. Evidence for the presence of a second species of mongoose in the Fiji Islands. Pac Cons. Biol. 13: 29-34. Morley, C. G. personal communication. Department of Conservation, Kauri Coast Area Oice, 150 Colville Road, Dargaville New Zealand. Nellis, D.W. 1989. Mammalian Species – Herpestes auropunctatus. Amer. Soc. Mammal. Mammalian Sp. 342: 1–6. Ryan, P. 1988. Fiji’s Natural Heritage. Exisle Publishing, Auckland, New Zealand. Sherley, G. (ed). 2000. Invasive species in the Paciic: a technical review and draft regional strategy. South Paciic Regional Environment Strategy, Apia, Samoa. Simberlof, D., T. Dayan, C. Jones and G. Ogura, G. 2000. Character displacement and release in the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes javanicus. Ecology 81(8): 2086-2099. Simberlof, D. personal communication. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 USA. Veron, G., M-L. Patou, D. Simberlof, P. A. McLenachan and C. G. Morley. In press. he Indian Brown Mongoose, Yet Another Invader in Fiji. Biol. Invas. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 69 Chapter 6 Observations of terrestrial Terrestrial Preliminary observations gastropods of the Nakauvadra Range, Gastropods Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Team members: Nunia Thomas and Dick Watling (NatureFiji-Mareqeti Viti) for opportunistic snail collections SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ Even without dedicated sampling at least ive diferent species of terrestrial gastropod were found. One species (Parmarion martensi Simroth 1893) is introduced and has documented agricultural pest and human health associations. All of the other species found are very likely to be unique to Fiji (endemic) and members of their families from other Paciic Island countries are listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List. Based on the previously recorded high diversity of terrestrial gastropods in Fiji, increased sampling efort in wetter conditions would undoubtedly reveal a higher diversity of both endemic and native species being present. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ he biodiversity of Fiji’s terrestrial, gastropod snails is very high in respect to land area, with 49 native and 160 endemic species reported (Barker 2005). However, despite being of global signiicance, terrestrial snails in the Paciic Islands are under serious threat (Lydeard et al. 2004). At least 20 introduced terrestrial-gastropod species are recorded as present in Fiji (Barker 2005), and so far these do not include two of the world’s worst high-risk invasive snails Achatina fulica (Bowdich 1822) and Euglandia rosea (Ferussac 1818) (GISD, 2008). hese latter two species are already a signiicant problem; for biodiversity loss, agricultural production and trade opportunities, in neighboring Paciic Island countries (Cowie 2008, SPC/LRD pers. comm.). We need to listen and learn from what has occurred in other regional island states (e.g. Samoa, French Polynesia and Hawaii) as the risk of extinction of our unique Fijian endemic snail fauna, from habitat loss and invasive species, is extremely high. METHODS ______________________________________________________________ Living snails and dead snail shells were collected opportunistically by hand. No targeted surveys were formally conducted. Snails were generally found in leaf litter during the day or on higher vegetation or human infrastructure, such as tents, during the night. No targeted nocturnal searches were made for arboreal species. Specimens were photographed, measured and preserved for future identiication in 80% alcohol. DNA samples (small pieces of tail) were also taken from ive living species to facilitate future investigations of genetic relatedness to (i) populations in other parts of Fiji and (ii) similar snails being studied in other parts of the Paciic Island region. 70 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Preliminary observations of terrestrial gastropods of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Classiications given were determined using Burch (1962) in combination with Barker (2005) and Cowie (2008). All of the identiications given are tentative except for the members of the genus Placostylus. All specimens will be lodged with the South Paciic Regional Herbarium/USP Marine Collections. RESULTS_____________________________________ At least ive diferent species of terrestrial snails were recorded (Table 6.1). Of these, two species were found in relatively large numbers (A3 and A4). A3 is the extremely hardy introduced species Parmarion martensi Simroth 1893 (Plate 10). A4 is a currently unidentiied species that most likely belongs to the family Helicarionidae and is therefore very likely to be an Fijian endemic. At least one, and possibly two species of the genus Placostylus were also found. Members of this genus in Fiji are also recorded as endemic (see Barker 2005). Only one Placostylus specimen was alive when captured (Plate 11) but the presence of several dead shells suggests that the species might be easier to locate when environmental conditions are less dry. Living specimens of two another likely endemics (A2 and A5) from the Family Helicarionidae were also found (Plate 12a & b). DISCUSSION AND CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE_ Considering the known decline in global land snail biodiversity, and the relevant importance of the Paciic Island endemic fauna to that biodiversity (Lydeard et al. 2004), the presence of living specimens of the Fijian endemic taxa Placostylus and unidentiied members of the family Helicarionidae, which is considered to contain at least 18 endemic species unique to Fiji (Barker 2005), makes the Nakauvadra Range signiicant in global biodiversity terms. Both of these taxonomic groups have species from other regions already listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List (Brescia et al. 2008) and it is well known that threatened Paciic Island fauna are currently missing from the IUCN data source. he presence of at least one introduced species (Parmarion martensi) in the middle of the forest range is of considerable concern as such hardy alien species may be capable of contributing signiicantly to native species extinction (see Cowie 2008). In addition, Parmarion martensi is considered to be a vector for human related illness (Hollingsworth et al. 2007). In a report to the Fiji Government Parkinson (1982) listed six relatively large species of Placostylus land snails as having potential value as specimen shells in the commercial shell trade industry (selling overseas). However, considerable habitat loss in the last 26 years and a strengthened understanding of the extinction risk to our unique fauna, due to habitat loss and invasive species, leads us to a very diferent view in regards to their conservation value today. Any use of Placostylus shells as an income source would need to be very careful assessed via appropriate protocols (e.g. CITES regulations). Most terrestrial snails are nocturnally active because of their need for damp conditions. Targeted sampling at night or during rainy overcast conditions would no doubt produce a substantial increase in the number of species found. Many species are arboreal (found in trees) and therefore spot-lighting in trees at night is necessary. Baiting may also be efective particularly to attract introduced species present. CONCLUSIONS Conservation and future research recommendations he unique nature of Fiji’s land snail fauna, and the high potential for its irretrievable loss by high risk invasive species, makes strategic planning for their long-term conservation vital. hese goals would be best achieved by: l Relatively large scale habitat conservation in areas such as native forest, small islands and areas with signiicant deposits of limestone (needed by many terrestrial gastropod species for shell development). l Including land snails in a more targeted manner in future surveys to capitalize on their suitability as excellent sentinel taxa for ecosystem change. l Conducting investigations into the human health risks and feeding habits of Parmarion martensi to fully assess its potential to impact on humans and native fauna. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 71 Chapter 6 REFERENCES Barker, G. 2005. Priorities for additions to the Fijian protected natural areas network: an assessment based on complementarity in land snail assemblages. Unpublished Report prepared by Landcare Research New Zealand for the Wildlife Conservation Society, Suva. Burch, J. 1962. How to know the eastern land snails. Pictured-keys for determining the land snails of the United States occurring east of the Rocky Mountain Range. W.M.C. Brown Company Publishers, Iowa. Cowie, R. 2008. Samoan Snail Project. http://www2. bishopmuseum.org/PBS/samoasnail/. Accessed December 18, 2008. Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. http://www. issg.org/database. Accessed December 18, 2008. Hollingsworth, R. G., R. Kaneta, J. Sulivan, H. Bishop, Y. Qvarnstrom, A. da Silva, and D. Robinson. 2007. Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a New Semi-Slug Pest on Hawai‘i Island, and Its Potential as a Vector for Human Angiostrongyliasis. Pac. Sci. 61(4): 457-467. Lydeard, C., R. Cowie, W. Ponder, A. Bogan, P. Bouchet, S. Clark, K. Cummings, T. Frest, O. Gargominy, D. Herbert, R. Hershler, K. Perez, B. Roth, M. Seddon, E. Strong, E. and F. hompson. 2004. he global decline in nonmarine molluscs. BioScience 54(4): 321330. Parkinson, B. 1982. he specimen shell resources of Fiji. Report prepared for the South Paciic Commission and the Government of Fiji. 72 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Preliminary observations of terrestrial gastropods of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 73 Chapter 6 Table 6.1. Preliminary summary of opportunistically - found specimens on Nakauvadra range. USP Code USP5819 Brodie Code A1 USP5820 A2 (DNA1) USP5821 A3 (DNA2) USP5822 A4 USP5823 A5 (DNA4) USP5824 USP5825 A6 (DNA3) A7 USP5826 A8 (DNA6) USP5827 A9 USP5828 74 Species Family Bulimulidae Placostylus sp. 1 (adult dead shells only) Family Helicarionidae Orpiella sp? Family Ariophantidae Parmarion martensi Family Helicarionidae (dead shells only) Orpiella sp? Family Helicarionidae (living animals might = A4) Orpiella sp? Probably same as A3 Placostylus sp. 2 (shell not weathered, might be juvenile) Probably same as A3 Specimen died before living details recorded A10 (DNA5) Placostylus sp. Very likely to be a living A1 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Common Name Flax shell No. found & collected 6 1 2 Dead shells common along track, 7 collected (only one not weathered) 2 1 1 2 1 Flax shell 1 Preliminary observations of terrestrial gastropods of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Body form Bulimoid shell present dextrally coiled, aperture edges thickened Heliform shell present (spire exceptionally lattened), dextrally coiled Slug-like, reduced cap-like shell towards posterior Heliform shell, dexterally coiled, spire lattened (thin aperture edge broken) Size 40-50mm (shell height) Status Endemic to Fiji 8mm (shell diameter), 5mm (shell height) 34mm (crawling length without tentacles) 8-12 mm (shell height), 10-18 mm (shell diameter) Endemic likely but deinately native Introduced Heliform shell, dexterally coiled, spire lattened (thin aperture edge intact) 10 mm (shell height), 17 mm (shell diameter) Endemic likely Slug - small reduced cap - like shell Fusiform shape shell 35 mm crawling length 39 mm (shell height), 17 mm (shell width), aperture edge thin Kept alive in sealed container for several weeks 9 mm (shell diameter), 1 mm (shell height) 50 mm (shell height), aperture edge thickened Introduced sp. likely Fiji endemic Slug - small reduced caplike shell Cap - like shell Bulimoid shell present dextrally coiled Endemic likely Introduced sp. likely, extremely hardy Unknown Fiji endemic A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 75 Chapter 7 Freshwater Macroinvertebrates macroinvertebrates of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Team members: Ilaitia Finau (Biology, USP/Applied Science, FIT), Avai Saloma (Vunisea village), Baravi Thaman (USP, opportunistic collections) Laboratory Team: Mavis Depaune (USP student), Dr Alison Haynes (Honorary Fellow, IAS), Pearl Sharma (USP student), Luse Tareguci (USP Student), Mondal Lal (USP PG Student) and Cherrie Whippy (USP) assisted with prawn identiication. SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ he total species richness of macroinvertebrates found in the four sites sampled was 35 species. Mayly abundance and caddisly larval diversity were high. hese results are indicative of relatively “healthy” streams and are as expected for upper catchment streams surrounded by a relatively “undisturbed” catchment area. he streams also appeared to be in good condition primarily because the stream bank vegetation (riparian vegetation) is intact; the streams are well-shaded with high levels of organic debris such as leaf litter. Special eforts should be made to keep the natural vegetation intact and undisturbed along all stream banks since the overall health of the waterways is likely to be reliant on the organic matter inputs from the surrounding forest. No obvious invasive freshwater macroinvertebrates or any cane toad tadpoles were found during sampling. here were however, obvious signs of invasive weeds in the stream beds particularly in the lower Volivoli sites sampled. his is of concern as any similar accidental introductions of non-native freshwater invertebrate species in the future, such as viviparid gastropods, may displace the native fauna and introduce species capable of acting as vectors for human-related illnesses. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ Freshwater macroinvertebrates are a fundamental component of freshwater ecosystems being essential for ecosystem function. he assemblages vary depending on environmental variables natural and human induced. It is therefore important to note that this survey was conducted during “dry” conditions at the very end of the dry season before expected wet season rains began. Several freshwater macroinvertebrate surveys have been previously carried out in diferent parts of Fiji (e.g., Cowie 1980, Haynes 1994, 1999, Haynes and Whippy 1997, Boseto 2006, Jenkins et al. 2006). Previous freshwater invertebrate surveys have been also carried out by NIWA (New Zealand) in the Nakauvadra Range, as part of a Fiji-wide 160 site survey, but data from that exercise is not readily available. his latter data has however been used to create freshwater invertebrate tools for Fiji (see Suren, in press a, b). 76 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Freshwater macroinvertebrates of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji METHODS ____________________________________ Field sampling followed methodology adapted from Suren (in press a, b) in combination with United States Department of Agriculture Stream visual assessment protocols (USDA 1998). Field methods Study sites Four study sites were sampled (Map 7). Sites 1, 3 and 4 were sampled along a 100 m length whereas Site 2 was only sampled along a 50 m length because of limited accessibility to the water course. Environmental parameters At each sample site the following parameters were recorded; GPS location, altitude, low rate, shade cover, water temperature, time of day, pH, water clarity, stream width, stream depth, bank vegetation type, bank condition, organic material present, substrate type. he irst eight parameters were recorded once per site while the latter seven were recorded every 10 m and then “averaged”. Table 7.1. Comparative summary of environmental parameters recorded at each study site. Parameter Grid Position Stream Site 1 Volivoli A S17o27’34.5; E178o06’015 278 0.25 70 22.0 Morning 8.07 100% 2.8 m Altitude (m) Flow rate (m/s) Shade coverage (%) Water temperature (Co) Time of day pH Water Clarity Stream width (average active channel) Stream width (av. stream 16.5 m bed) Stream depth (average) Medium (< 0.8 m) Bank vegetation Tall trees, native forest Bank Condition Stable - rocky but weeds present Stream Site 2 Volivoli B S17o27’35.7; E178o06’03 65 229 2.33 80-85 22.2 Afternoon 8.29 100% 3.1 m Stream Site 3 Natoluwalu S17o27’16.5; E178o05’59 6 289 0.62 85 22.8 Morning 7.55 100% 3.24 m Stream Site 4 Nabiya S17o27’19.59; E178o05’49 55 331 0.14 90 24.0 Afternoon 7.38 100% 2.2 m 12.7 m 13.6 m 12.8 m Medium (< 0.8 m) Ferns & weeds Very low (< 0.2 m) Large trees left bank, ferns on other side Relatively stable vegetated/soil. Stones and tree roots. Low (< 0.5 m) Weeds and native vegetation Relatively stable - 6 metre straight bank on right, gentle slope on left Dead leaves, some brown “ilm” algae Small to medium rocks Stable either solid rock or stones Organic Material Present A lot of dead leaves Some green “ilm” algae Dead leaves, some green “ilm” algae Dominant substrate type* Gravel, small to medium rocks Gravel, medium rocks Medium rocks, large boulders * small rock = < 15 cm, medium rock = < 50 cm, large rock = > 50 cm, boulder = > 1 m A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 77 Chapter 7 Invertebrate sampling sampling Invertebrate Invertebrate fauna was sampled within the water (riles, runs and pools) by selecting 10 liftable sized rocks and vigorously brushing the surface of each with a soft brush while a ine- mesh net was held down stream. Additional samples were also taken in pools; from the water surface using a hand held ine-mesh sweep net, and from the sides of larger boulders by hand. Within each site the samples from all habitats were combined into one sample. Some additional invertebrates were also collected opportunistically outside of the site areas (= “others” column in Table 7.2). All samples were preserved in 80% ethanol for transport back to the laboratory. references: Choy (1984), Haynes (in progress, 2001), Short (2004), Suren (in press b) and Hawking (2007). RESULTS ____________________________________ parameters Environmental parameters A comparative summary of the environmental parameters recorded for each site is shown in Table 7.1. All sites were relatively similar in respect to water temperature, pH, shading and substrate type. However the sites difered substantially in respect to low rate and water depth. he higher altitude sites, i.e., Sites 3 and 4, had less low and less available water. he higher low rate in Site 2 was the result of several additional water sources (each seemingly small on the land surface) entering the main stream downstream of Site 1. sorting and identiication identiication Laboratory sorting Invertebrate ield samples were examined and sorted under a dissecting microscope in the laboratory at the University of the South Paciic Laucala Campus. Identiications were made using the following Table 7.2. Summary of invertebrate taxa and abundance found Taxa Insecta Mollusca Crustacea Platyhelminthes Nematomorpha Arachnida Annelida Total 78 Ephemeroptera Coleoptera Hemiptera Odonata Lepidoptera Orphoptera Trichoptera Diptera Unknown Gastropod Site 1 Volivoli A 157 6 53 10 19 1 4 11 7 22 290 Site 2 Volivoli B 572 7 8 5 100 12 32 2 1 3 13 755 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Site 3 Natoluwalu Site 4 Nabiya Other Total 2 2 21 10 33 1 1 23 8 18 1 11 130 5 6 1 48 32 1 29 1 3 4 133 2 1 5 1 10 735 4 13 88 26 1 200 46 6 100 18 44 1 4 28 1318 Freshwater macroinvertebrates of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Invertebrates Abundance A total of 1318 individual invertebrates from 35 diferent species were found at all sites (Table 7.2, Appendix 5). hese were divided by higher taxon as follows: Insecta (84.8%), Mollusca (7.6%), Crustacea (1.7%), Nematomorpha (0.08%), Platyhelminthes (3.4%), Arachnida (0.3%), Annelidia (2.1%). he most abundant taxa were larvae of the mayly Psuedocloeon sp. followed by the damselly Nesobasis spp. here was a strong diference among sites in that several taxa, particularly maylies, increased in abundance where stream low rate was higher and where the stream contained more water (i.e., greater average depth). Species richness richness Of the 35 species found 27 (65.7%) were insects. he most species-rich order of insects was the caddislies (Order Trichoptera) with eight diferent species. he damselly genus Nesobasis (insect Order Odonata) probably contains several species but these are not easily separated. Functional feeding groups Overall, the macroinvertebrates identiied were a relatively even mixture of the four broad categories of macroinvertebrate feeding group; grazers, shredders, ilter feeders and predators (Table 7.2). DISCUSSION _________________________________ Stream health Generally the fauna found, particularly the high abundance of mayly and high species richness of caddisly larvae, is indicative of relatively “healthy” streams (Hawking 2007). he lower numbers of these taxa at the higher altitude sites i.e., Site 3 (Natoluwalu Stream) and Site 4 (Nabiya Stream) are most likely the result of there being less water above ground at the end of the dry season. he forested streams sampled are likely to be heterotrophic, that is they reply on debris from the surrounding forest as their energy base (see Cowie 1980). Human food species he abundance of the freshwater long-arm prawn species Macrobrachium cf. latidactylus (hallwitz 1891) [ura] was not adequately sampled by the methods employed in this survey however, our opportunistic sampling suggests that the species is relatively abundant. Non-human food species Although the majority of faunal biodiversity found in this survey consists of very small animals, their feeding habits and functional diversity means that they are a very important part of the overall food web. For example these macro invertebrates may be macroinvertebrates essential bird, ish or prawn food and play a vital role in the break down of organic materials (e.g. leaf litter). he macroinvertebrates macro invertebrate grazers also have a signiicant inluence on algal biomass. In short, the presence of these non-food species is vital for healthy streams and overall ecosystem function (Suren, in press a, b). Comparison to previous macroinvertebrate studies in Fiji he total species richness of 35 species is similar to the 38 species found by Haynes (1999) in the unlogged Wainikovu Creek. However, the study by Haynes extended over a 3 year period and separated out six individual damselly species of the genus Nesobasis. he macroinvertebrate biodiversity of the current study (35 species) is considerably higher than the macroinvertebrate biodiversity (four crustacean species) recorded by Boseto (2006) in the Sovi Basin. his is because of a diferent focus and sampling methodology. Invasives and human health No obvious invasive freshwater macroinvertebrates or any cane toad tadpoles were found during sampling however there were obvious signs of invasive weeds in the stream beds particularly in the Volivoli sites below the base camp. his is of concern as similar accidental introductions of invasive invertebrates such as viviparid gastropods may introduce species capable of acting as vectors for human-related illnesses. he opportunistic discovery of a large freshwater nematomorphan horsehair worm [wa-lutu-mai-lagi] was unexpected however, the fact that it has a local name indicates it is not uncommon. he larvae of this species are parasitic but are not known to infect A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 79 Chapter 7 humans, the normal host being insects (Ruppert et al. 2004). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ________ he macroinvertebrate biodiversity ratios found (i.e. high mayly and caddisly larvae) are as expected for upper catchment streams surrounded by native forest with a relatively “undisturbed” catchment area. However, there is evidence of invasive weed species along the stream beds which implies there is strong potential for similar introductions of invasive freshwater fauna. Eforts should be made to reduce pathways for introduction and spread including: l Restricting horse access Restricting horse access Keeping camp streams access l Keeping thethe useuse of of camp streams andand access tracks a minimum tracks toto a minimum Controlling entry human related waste l Controlling thethe entry of of human related waste e.g. chemicals or rubbish, into streams e.g. chemicals or rubbish, into streams he streams sampled appeared to be in good condition primarily because the stream bank vegetation (riparian vegetation) is intact and the streams are well-shaded with high levels of organic debris such as leaf litter. Special eforts should be made to keep the natural vegetation intact and undisturbed along all stream banks since the overall health of the waterways is likely to be reliant on organic matter inputs from the surrounding forest. REFERENCES Boseto, D. 2006. Freshwater invertebrate and vertebrate surveys. In: Morrison, C. (ed). hird Baseline lora and fauna survey and Establishment of Lon-term Monitoring Plots in the Sovi Basin, Naitasiri, 20-31 March, 2006. Available from Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. Choy, S. 1984. On the freshwater Palaemonid prawns from the Fiji Islands (Decopoda, Caridea). Crustaceana 47: 269-277. Cowie, B. 1980. he Fiji Aquatic Insect Survey MayNovember, 1980. Environmental Studies Report No. 9, Institute of Natural Resources, University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. Haynes, A. 1994. he efects of development on 80 Fijian island freshwater invertebrates. Mem. Qld. Mus. 36: 87-91. Haynes, A. 1999. he long-term efects of forest logging on the macroinvertebrates in a Fijian stream. Hydrobiologia 405: 79-87. Haynes, A. 2001. Freshwater Snails of the Tropical Paciic Islands. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. ISBN 982-01-0422-X. Haynes, A. (in progress). Freshwater Insects of Fiji’s Streams and Rivers. Institute of Applied Sciences Identiication Guide, University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. Haynes, A. & Whippy, S. 1997. he Invertebrate and Vertebrate Fauna in the Sabeto River. Pages 9-10 and Appendix 4. In: Tuvatu Gold Mine Project Environmental Impact Assessment water Quality and Fauna Study. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Paciic, Environmental Studies Report 91. Hawking, J. 2007. Information for the identiication of Australian aquatic invertebrates. Available at http://www.mdfrc.org.au/bugguide/index.htm Jenkins, A., D. Boseto and K. Koto. 2006. Aquatic fauna and water quality of ive river catchments in Macuata Province, Vanua Levu, Fiji. Report by Wetlands International- Oceania. Ruppert, E.E., R. S. Fox and R. D. Barnes. 2004. Invertebrate Zoology, a Functional Evolutionary Approach. (7th Edition). homson, Belmont. Short, J. 2004. A revision of Australian river prawns Macrobrachium (Crustacea: Decapod: Palaemonidae). Hydrobiologica 525: 1-100. Suren, A. In press a. PAC-SHMAK: he Fijian Stream Health Monitoring and Assessment Kit. Instruction Manual. New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA), Christchurch, New Zealand. Suren, A. In press b. Freshwater Invertebrates of Fiji: An Identiication Guide. New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd. (NIWA), Christchurch, New Zealand. United States Department of Agriculture. 1998. Stream Visual Assessment Protocol. National Water and Climate Center Technical Note 99-1. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Chapter 8 Insects of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Hilda Waqa-Sakiti Team members: Tokasaya Cakacaka (IAS), Presly Dovo (IAS) SUMMARY____________________________________________________________________________ In November 2008, an entomological survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Viti Levu was conducted. he entomological qualitative surveys included: light trapping to target nocturnal insects, leaf litter sampling, tree beating, butterly collections and opportunistic surveys. he surveys were conducted for a period of 10 consecutive days however, adverse weather conditions on some of the days did not allow for insect sampling. he order Coleopetera (beetles) was the most common insect order encountered through the surveys with a total 18 families. Rare families encountered during the surveys included: Cerambycidae, Lucanidae and Buprestidae. he greatest diversity of insects sampled from the Nakauvadra Range using nocturnal searches, tree beating and butterly surveys was located within relatively intact, lowland forest near the conluence of the Nabiya and Volivoli Creeks. he highlight of the survey was the discovery of two stick insects known to be endemic and very rare in the Fiji islands, with virtually nothing known about either species: Nisyrus spinulosus (syn. Cotylosoma) and Phasmotaenia inermis (syn. Hermarchus) and a shy scorpion Liocheles australasiae. hese were also found within the lowland forested area. he isolation of the forest system, and hence the insect fauna, due to the high mountain ranges separating it from neighboring forest systems explains much of the uniqueness and great diversity of insects from the Nakauvadra Range. INTRODUCTION_______________________________________________________________________ he Nakauvadra Range is located on the northern side of Viti Levu and south of Rakiraki town. It runs parallel to the coast about 7 km inland with the highest elevation reaching 866 m a.s.l. he range is comprised of andesitic rocks formed from the eroded rim of the large Rakiraki volcano (Terry 2007). To date there have been no entomology surveys or records from the Nakauvadra Range. Consequently, the main aims of this survey were to: (a) conduct a baseline entomology survey of the Nakauvadra Range using a variety of survey techniques, (b) identify signiicant species or taxa (including accurate GPS positions for any signiicant indings) and (c) collect voucher specimens to be housed at the SPR Herbarium, USP. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 81 Chapter 8 METHODS ____________________________________ Leaf litter surveys Leaf litter surveys were conducted targeting the altitudinal range (250-550m a.s.l.). Four 50 m transects marked at 5 m intervals were set up (Map 8). One-m2 quadrats were used to sample leaf litter at 5 m intervals along the transects. Leaf litter was sieved through 12 mm mesh and transferred into Winkler bags. he bags were then hung out for at least two whole days to dry out. Collected specimens were stored in ethanol (80%) in tightly sealed labeled vials for further sorting and identiication in the lab. Nocturnal surveys Nocturnal collections for other insect groups were conducted using light traps. hese were set up every night where possible when the weather was ine and left to run from 18.00-06.00. Collected specimens were stored in ethanol (80%) in tightly sealed labeled vials for further sorting and identiication in the lab. Other surveys A few shrub trees were randomly selected for beating. At least 3-4 trees of the same species were sampled using this method. Opportunistic surveys were also conducted whilst carrying out surveys of other taxa. Butterlies and damsellies were also sampled opportunistically in open grassland areas along the Volivoli Creek and Nabiya Creek using handheld nets during days with good weather. Voucher specimens were collected for identiication. Identiication of Table 8.1. Insects collected during leaf litter sampling Taxa Order Coleoptera Family Curculionidae Carabidae Nitidulidae Scolytidae Chrysomelidae LL 1 1 1 2 Orthoptera Hymenoptera 9 hysanoptera 3 Dermaptera 1 Hemiptera 2 Scorpiones 2 Opiliones 6 Acari Indeterminate 2 Locality data: LL 1: 178 05 45E, 17 26 27S; 541 m a.s.l LL 2: 178 05 35E, 17 27 29S; 503 m a.s.l LL 3; 178 05 55E, 17 27 25S; 328 m a.s.l LL 4; 178 07 45E, 17 27 47S; 253 m a.s.l 82 Location LL 2 LL 3 1 1 3 11 3 LL 4 2 1 3 1 15 1 4 3 5 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 6 1 Insects of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Taxa results he greatest diversity was sampled from Transect 1 at a mid altitude of 541 m a.s.l. which conirms that mid-altitudes harbour the greatest diversity for insects due to fewer natural disturbances and relatively mild climatic conditions. Overall, there were few insects sampled from leaf litter due to the fact that the leaf litter layer was very thin and dry, which is unfavourable for insects. Leaf litter sampling A total of 93 individuals from nine insect orders were collected during leaf litter sampling (Table 8.1). he order Coleoptera (beetles) recorded ive families (Curculionidae, Carabidae, Nitidulidae, Scolytidae and Chrysomelidae). he most common taxa encountered were Hymenoptera: Formicidae (ants). Nocturnal sampling Nocturnal sampling was carried out on four nights when weather conditions permitted. A total of 166 individuals representative of seven orders were recorded (Table 8.2). he orders Homoptera: Cicadidae (cicada, Plates 13, 14) and Coleoptera (beetles) were the most common taxa encountered butterly species was based on Prasad and WaqaSakiti (2007). All specimens are currently being curated and catalogued at the SPR Herbarium, USP. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 8.2. Insects collected during light trap sampling Taxa Order Coleoptera Homoptera Orthoptera Hemiptera Tricoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Family Scaraebidae Eucnemidae Lampyridae Scolytidae Cerambycidae Elateridae Scolytidae Tenebrionidae Carabidae Lucanidae Curculionidae Cicadidae Crickets Katydid Moths LL 1 7 Location LL 2 12 2 1 1 1 6 2 2 6 1 1 1 35 22 1 4 3 4 Abundant 1 LL 3 2 1 LL 4 1 2 3 1 2 5 22 1 10 4 Locality data: LL 1 & 3: 178 05 52E, 17 27 20S; 327 m a.s.l LL 2: 178 05 56E, 17 27 21S; 309 m a.s.l LL 4; 178 07 43E, 17 27 47S; 249 m a.s.l A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 83 Chapter 8 during the nocturnal surveys. he order Coleoptera was well represented recording 11 families including rare families such as Cerambycidae and Lucanidae. he greatest diversity was sampled on the irst night of the nocturnal survey at an altitude of 327m a.s.l located adjacent to Nabiya Creek. individuals representative of ive orders (Table 8.4). he most common taxa encountered were the order Coleoptera with a total of seven families amongst which was a rare member of the family Buprestidae (jewel beetles). he family Curculionidae (weevils) was the most common taxa encountered. Opportunistic sampling Butterlies were sampled from ive diferent locations on ive days with ine weather. A total of 25 individual butterlies were collected and around 12 others sighted within these locations (Table 8.3). Butterlies sampled were from eight diferent species, three of which are endemic to Fiji i.e. Papilio schmeltzi (Plate 15), Polyura caphontis and Hypolimnas inopinata. Butterlies from the genus Euploea were the most common taxa encountered and are quite widespread throughout Fiji. Interestingly, the endemic Fijian swallow tail butterly (P. schmeltzi) was abundant in location BC3 which was located downstream on Volivoli Creek from Camp 1 at an altitude of 330 m a.s.l. Other opportunistic surveys encountered 58 Tree beating sampling Tree beating surveys yielded 58 individuals representative of ive orders (Table 8.5). he order Coleoptera (beetles) was the most common taxa encountered representing ive families. he family Curculionidae (weevils) was the most represented family from tree beating mainly because these are herbivorous taxa. Hymenoptera: Formicidae (ants) were also amongst common taxa from tree beatings. Taxa Discussion Insecta: Coleoptera (beetles) Catches from light traps displayed the greatest diversity in the coleopteran assemblage i.e. in both Table 8.3. Butterlies collected during hand-net sampling. * Endemic to Fiji. Taxa Euploea boisduvali boisduvali E. tulliolus forsteri Papilio shmeltzi* Danaus hamata neptunica D. plexipus Xois sesara Polyura caphontis* Hypolimnas inopinata* Location BC 3 BC 1 3 BC 2 7 2 1 sighted 2 1 sighted 5 sighted 2 2 sighted 3 sighted sighted BC 4 4 2 Locality data: BC 1: Entry into the Nakauvadra ranges from Vatukacevaceva Vlg BC 2: Along Nabiya Creek near base camp1 BC 3: Downstream Volivoli creek near base camp 1 BC 4: Along Vunimakadra creek, near base camp 2 BC 5: Forest edge, exit Nakauvadra ranges to Narara village 84 BC 5 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 1 1 1 Insects of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji richness and relative abundance with a total of 18 coleopteran families. Rare families were encountered including: Cerambycidae (long-horn beetles), Lucanidae and Buprestidae (jewel beetles). he high diversity of the coleopteran fauna especially from the irst site is an excellent and positive indication of the health of the forest system as beetles are the main drivers of forest ecosystem functions including pollination, herbivory, decomposition and the recycling of nutrients. Compared to the results of the nocturnal surveys, leaf litter and tree beating sampling did not show much diversity due to length of surveys i.e. in hours/days and number of days. Future surveys with more sampling efort and in better conditions may produce a higher diversity using these other methods. survey area suggesting that the forest is still well intact. Its larval host plant, Micromelum minutum was also identiied. Insecta: Lepidoptera (butterlies) A total of eight Lepidopteran species were found of which three are endemic to Fiji namely: Papilio shmeltzi, Polyura caphontis and Hypolimnas inopinata. he Fijian endemic swallowtail butterly, Papilio schmeltzi was frequently encountered within the Insecta: Phasmatodea (stick insects) Signiicant inds from the Nakauvadra Range were mainly from the order Phasmatodea commonly known as the stick insects and locally known as ‘ucikau’ which literally means resembling a stick. One in particular is the female of Nisyrus spinulosus (synonym to Cotylosoma, Plate 16). his species was irst described in 1877. he only specimen to have been previously collected from which original descriptions were made (i.e. holotype) by Stal in 1877 is housed in the Natural History Museum in Stockholm, Sweden. he locality data shows it being collected from Viti Levu, Fiji. his recent ind would probably be the second specimen ever to be collected. Interestingly, nothing is known about N. spinulosus except that it is endemic to the Fiji islands with an unknown distribution within the country (Brock, pers. comm. 2008). he signiicance of this phasmid is its amazing body shape (i.e. cupped body, thought Table 8.4. Insects collected during opportunistic sampling. Table 8.5. Insects collected during opportunistic sampling. Taxa Order Coleoptera Location Family OS 1 Curculionidae 4 Dytiscidae 5 OS 2 31 Order Coleoptera Family Curculionidae Eucnemidae Location TB 1 10 2 TB 2 2 4 Scaraebidae 3 Chrysomelidae 2 Carabidae 1 Mordellidae 1 Buprestidae 1 Cerambycidae 1 Cleridae 1 Indeterminate Brentidae Hemiptera Orthoptera Phasmatodea Opiliones Taxa 1 5 3 2 1 Locality data: OS 1: 178 05 44 E, 17 26 23S; 534 m a.s.l OS 2: 178 07 43E, 17 27 47S; 249 m a.s.l. Hymenoptera Formicidae Orthoptera Araneae Opiliones 1 1 17 4 4 2 5 1 1 Locality data: TB 1: 178 05 52E, 17 27 20S, 327 m a.s.l. TB 2: 178 05 56 E, 17 27 21S; 309 m a.s.l. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 85 Chapter 8 to have enabled it to cling to the side of rocks), thus when another species of the same genus was irst described from a specimen at the Natural History Museum in London, it was thought as being semiaquatic (i.e. having the capacity for dual breathing system in both water and land). However, this was later conirmed to be false and considered a myth. Whilst in captivity, N. spinulosus did not show any form of aggressive behavior and made no attempt to escape. It also refused to feed while in captivity. his particular insect was found well camoulaged to the bark of the native dakua tree (Agathis macrophylla) with a diameter at breast height (dbh) of approximately 30 cm covered with lichens. Another unique ind was a female of Phasmotaenia inermis (synonym to Hermarchus, Plate 17) irst described in 1908. his species is an island endemic to Viti Levu and so far only been recorded from Korovou, Baulevu and Nadarivatu, thus this is also a irst record from the Nakauvadra Range (Brock pers. comm. 2008). Very little is known about this species. Class Arachnida: Order Scorpiones (scorpions) he scorpion Liocheles australasiae (Plate 18) was encountered during the survey. his is a very docile and shy scorpion and was found foraging on leaf litter. his species in particular is not venomous; Liocheles are some of the least venomous scorpions in the world and rarely sting in defense (Leeming pers. comm. 2008). his is one of the four scorpions recorded for Fiji and also a irst record for the Nakauvadra Range. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conservation signiicance he Nakauvadra Range is an important site for insect conservation in Fiji. Its isolation bordered by high mountain ranges makes it a unique forest system and habitat for insects. Entomological surveys in the area found a high diversity of coleopteran assemblages (which are key components of forest ecosystem functions) and signiicant inds included the endemic Fijian swallowtail butterly, the phasmids N. spinulosus and P. inermis and the rarely encountered shy scorpion L. australasiae (Appendix 6). Also abundant along the creeks were damsellies in the genera Melanesobasis and Nesobasis, the former which are native to Fiji and Vanuatu and the latter endemic 86 to Fiji. Recommendations for conservation and future work l he rare, endemic and possibly endangered species particularly N. spinulosus and P. inermis should be monitored throughout the year and between years to provide data on population numbers, local distribution patterns and seasonality patterns for the development of appropriate conservation and protection strategies; l More intensive and thorough entomological sampling using malaise trapping and active searches targeting the overall diversity of insects and rare and endemic species should be conducted in good weather over a longer timeframe to acquire a complete checklist of the diferent insect groups found in the Nakauvadra Range; l Environmental awareness workshops should be conducted for resource owners on the signiicance of the native fauna and the need to conserve forested areas i.e., to minimize activities leading to habitat destruction. REFERENCES Brock, P. Entomologist - Phasmatodea, he Natural History Museum, London. Personal communication on December 10, 2008. Leeming, J. Taxonomist - Scorpiones, Spider Club of South Africa. Personal communication on December 4, 2008. Naskrecki, P. Director - Invertebrate Diversity Initiative Conservation International, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Personal communication on March 11, 2009. Prasad, S. R. and H. Waqa-Sakiti. 2007. Butterlies of the Fiji Islands. University of the South Paciic, Suva, Fiji. Terry, J. P. 2007. Tropical Cyclones. Springer, New York. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Chapter 9 Freshwater ish and water quality of two catchments in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Aaron Jenkins Team members: Baravi Thaman (SPRH), Kinikoto Mailautoka (Wetlands International), local guides Iosefo and Jone SUMMARY his survey was conducted to produce an inventory of freshwater ishes in the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa Rivers, within the Nakauvadra Range interior forests of Ra province, Fiji. Overall a total of eight species from ive diferent families were collected or observed. Two species were collected from the family Gobiidae (Awaous guamnesis and Sicyopterus zosterophorum) that dominated the mid and the upper catchments. Also collected were three species of freshwater eels from the family Anguillidae (Anguilla marmorata, A. obscura and A. megastoma). he freshwater moray, Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Family Muraenidae), was also observed but not collected. We did not record any introduced exotic species in the mid and upper catchments although we observed that the lower catchment of the river system was heavily populated by the introduced Mozambique Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus (Family Cichlidae) and the mosquitoish, Gambusia affinis (Family Poeciliidae). hese two catchments appear depauperate in both diversity and abundance of ishes. here are a number of notably absent families (e.g. Kuhlidae, Eleotridae) and the sparse ichthyofauna that remains are among the hardier, ubiquitous species. No endemic or sensitive, rare fauna were observed. Although the natural riparian bufer zones on both of these upper catchments were largely still intact, the low abundance and diversity is likely due to the poor management of the lower catchments, compounded by the presence of the invasive Tilapia and mosquitoish in lower areas and the common use of Derris roots (Duva) as a ishing method. his was evident when sampling was carried out in the middle and upper catchments where freshly used Derris roots could be frequently seen. As the vast majority of ishes are migratory, their populations are efected by these lower catchment areas of poor habitat quality that they must migrate across. Managing village waste and agricultural bufer zones in the highly erodible and lood-prone lower catchments may also help improve the migration path from sea to freshwater estuaries and up into the middle and upper catchments, assisting a rehabilitation process for these inland freshwater fauna. INTRODUCTION his brief report documents the freshwater ichthyofauna and habitat (water) quality of the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa river systems, which low along the edges of the Nakauvadra Range in the interior forests of Ra Province. hese results are based solely on this initial biodiversity survey carried out from November 19-28, 2008. During this period, eight 150 – 200 m sections of both the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa catchments were intensively sampled for freshwater ish fauna and water quality in A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 87 Chapter 9 the mid and the upper catchments. he results of this survey contribute to evaluating the overall conservation signiicance of the area. Survey results also permit direct comparison of the ish fauna with other river systems, both within and outside Fiji and will be entered into the Fiji freshwater ish database, currently maintained by Wetlands InternationalOceania (WI-O). Initial observations and survey results have also helped in identifying some of the primary threats to these catchments and potential catchment management actions. Catchment characteristics he Vunilaci and Vuniqesa rivers are small, tertiary catchments which drain into the Wainibuka River, a major secondary tributary of the Rewa River (296,000 ha), the largest catchment in Fiji. he Wainibuka River catchment (74,567 ha) is one of ive major tributaries and drains the drier northeastern part of Viti Levu. his catchment has around 64% forest cover with 47,362 ha of forest remaining intact. With relatively steep slopes and deep weathering, soil erodibility is generally high with the erodibility of grassland and grazing along the upper reaches of the Wainibuka classiied as severe (Atherton et. al. 2005). Contributing to this erodibility, this secondary catchment is also notable in having the highest number of river road crossings (ie. bridges, culverts, fords) of any catchment in Fiji with a total of 1460 and the second highest length of roads in any catchment in Fiji (950 km), second only to Dreketi River with 1655 km (Atherton et. al. 2005). Both of the sampled, interior river catchments, however, do not show great erosion potential with bufer zones on the river banks are still thick with native trees. hese interior catchments are characterized by steep relief with many large barriers such as waterfalls and large metamorphic boulders, making it diicult for many ish to penetrate except for the Gobiidae (gobies) and Anguillidae (freshwater eel) families. METHODS Field sampling Eight 150-200 m sections of the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa catchments and tributaries were sampled for ishes and water quality (see Map 9). hese sites were divided into two major catchment types, middle 88 and upper catchments with the altitude ranging from 200 m in the mid catchments to 300 m on the upper catchments. Two upper and two mid catchment sites were sampled in each river. A variety of techniques were used to collect fauna from the river or stream, depending upon the characteristics of the site. Approximately 1 hr was spent sampling at each site. he apparatus and techniques used were as follows: Electro-fisher (Deka 3000, 600V, 10A) was a primary sampling tool in river and stream habitats. Wearing rubber waders and never venturing deeper than 1.5 m, the anode (on a 1 m long rod) was discharged while two people (also wearing rubber waders) held a medium sized, 1 mm2 mesh net across the stream several metres upstream from the anode. When the anode reached the net, it was raised and fauna within the net were placed in a water-illed plastic bucket. Large seine net (2 m x 7 m, 0.4 cm2 mesh) his net was pulled in a rough circle, with the bottom edge down as close as possible to the substrate and forward of the top loating edge of the net. his technique was executed before anyone could set foot in the water body to minimize the number of leeing ishes. his was generally used only in minor tributaries and slow moving or still waters. Medium pole seine net (1.2 m x 0.8 m, 1mm2 mesh) his was used in a variety of ways. Firstly, it was held irmly downstream as people kicked and dislodged rubble upstream. his was a useful method for collecting small, bottom dwelling ish. On vegetated banks the net was thrust under submerged vegetation and the vegetation was disturbed on the bank dislodging ishes into the net. Also, this net was used to “scoop” (bottom edge held forward, run along substrate for a few seconds then lifted) from any accessible shallow waterbodies. his net was particularly useful for narrow streams. Small hand nets (15 cm x 10 cm and 10 cm x 8 cm, 1mm2 mesh) hese were used to “scoop” the underside of overhanging rocks and in small crevices in the smaller streams and also to collect ishes when in still water bodies. Observations (mask and snorkel) In areas that were shallow and the water was clear enough, a mask and snorkel were used to observe the benthos and isheries resources that were not being caught by the nets. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Freshwater ish and water quality of two catchments in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Specimen preservation Voucher specimens were collected, ixed in a 10% formalin solution and transferred to 70% ethanol solution after 5 days of ixation. Some specimens were stored directly in 70% ethanol for DNA analysis. As color loss is rapid, accurate preservation of color patterns was recorded by photography. Fresh specimens were placed in a portable aquarium with some local aquatic vegetation and benthos to enhance the photography. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Marine Studies collection of University of the South Paciic in Suva (USPS). Water quality and habitat characteristics Current speed was measured by loating a plastic lid a measured distance, timing it with a stopwatch and dividing distance (m) by time(s). pH, temperature, conductivity and salinity were measured using a TPS handheld meter. Turbidity was measured using a turbidity tube and given in Nephthalometric Turbidity Units. Location was taken with a Garmin 8 handheld GPS. Depth, width and length of reach sampled were measured with a waterproof, iberglass measuring tape. Approximately 1 hr was spent sampling at each site. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Species richness and abundance Overall a total of eight species from ive diferent families were collected or observed (Table 9.1). Two species were collected from the family Gobiidae (Awaous guamnesis and Sicyopterus zosterophorum, Plate 19) that dominated the mid and the upper catchments. Also collected were three species of freshwater eels from the family Anguillidae (Anguilla marmorata, Anguilla obscura and Anguilla megastoma). he freshwater moray, Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Family Muraenidae), was also observed and photographed but not collected. We did not record any introduced exotic species in the mid and upper catchments of Vunilaci and Vuniqesa Rivers although we did observe that in the lower catchment, where the rivers join near Vunisea village, was heavily populated by the introduced Mozambique Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus (Family Cichlidae) and the mosquitoish, Gambusia affinis (Family Poeciliidae). Headwaters In Table 9.1, most of the sites sampled ranged from 200-300 m a.s.l. Although we divided the sites up into mid and upper catchments, the diversity and life forms of the ishes sampled relect largely the common families of an Indo-West Paciic island upper catchment fauna. All species found in these head waters are highly migratory native fauna that are the hardy, ubiquitous species found in both degraded and intact catchments (Jenkins et al. 2005). hey are morphologically capable of surmounting large barriers such as waterfalls. he ish diversity and abundance was poor however, and this could be partially caused by overishing, as people commonly travel across this catchment and use the highly destructive Derris root for ishing (Plate 20). his could also relect the poor quality and highly interrupted state of the lower catchments including the Wainibuka. he major headwater fauna observed are Anguillidae (Freshwater eels) which have an obligate catadromous life history pattern. his means that the adult eels must migrate out to sea where they breed and die. he larval eels then re-enter freshwater were they will migrate upwards feeding and growing until they must return to sea to breed. he other family present is Gobiidae from the subfamily Sycidiinae. hese species are amphidromous, meaning that they spawn in freshwater, the hatched larvae pass to sea and the juveniles return to freshwater as post-larval ishes where they will migrate upwards and grow (Keith 2003). Mid-reaches he middle reaches of these catchments were also at quite a high elevation for a tropical high island scenario (around 200 m) and again predominantly yielded the common families associated with higher elevations (Anguillidae, Gobiidae). However, in addition to the fauna found in the headwater sites, two other species of eels were found. First was another species of Anguillidae, Anguilla obscura, generally more common in swampy, low low areas. Secondly was the freshwater moray, Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Family Muraenidae). Both of these species are obligate catadromous species which must migrate to sea to breed and die, before the larval eels re-enter the freshwater for growth and the bulk of the remainder of their lives. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 89 Chapter 9 Table 9.1. Numbers of ishes collected or observed in the upper and middle sampling sites in the Vunilaci and Vuniqesa catchments. Sites 1 & 2 (mid), 3 & 4 (upper) Vunilaci River; sites 5 & 6 (mid), 7 (upper) Vuniqesa River. * Fishes observed near Vunisea village. University of the South Paciic (USPS) catalogue accession numbers are given in the inal column. Family Anguillidae Muraenidae Gobiidae Cichlidae Poeciliidae Genus Anguilla Anguilla Anguilla Gymnothorax Sicyopus Awaous Species 1 marmorata obscura megastoma polyuranodon 1 zosterophorum guamensis 7 Oreochromis Gambusia mossambicus affinis Lower reaches While we did not spend much time sampling in the lower reaches, we did make some observations by mask and snorkel near Vunisea village. hese lower reaches were clearly heavily invaded by the two most common invasive ishes in the Paciic Islands, the Mozambique Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the Mosquitoish (Gambusia affinis). Globally, introduced invasive species are second only to habitat destruction as the major factor driving extinction of native species (e.g. Canonico et al. 2005). Our research in Fiji has demonstrated that those high island catchments with Tilapia present have, on average, seven less ish species then those without and those native species lost are often the common inland food ishes (Eleotridae) and endemic species (Sicydiinae) (Jenkins et. al. pers. obs.). his observation also supports the fact that none of the major indigenous food ishes (e.g. Kuhliidae, Eleotridae) or endemics were seen during this survey. Water quality and habitat characteristics Overall, the quality of water in the two upper catchment areas appears to be high and relects both the high level of remaining forest cover and the steeper topography of both the catchments (Appendix 7). With altitudes ranging from 200- 280 m a.s.l., the headwaters of both these catchments are in generally excellent condition to support aquatic life with mainly intact native riparian vegetation, 90 2 3 2 4 5 1 6 2 3 2 2 7 * 1 6 4 2 3 >10 >10 USPS 5797 observed observed observed 5792 5794,579 6,5798 observed observed shading waters to a cool 23-24°C, good average water low of around 0.35m/s, generally over 70% dissolved oxygen and very little turbidity. Threats l One of the major threats which the survey team observed was the common usage of Derris roots as means of catching ish. he use of these poisonous plants can change the quality of water by depleting oxygen and asphyxiating all aquatic life. Although it is not really efective in free lowing, highly oxygenated waters, life forms in ponds and slower lowing waters are severely afected. It is indiscriminate and will also kill all juveniles, thus removing future potential populations; l Introduced ish species at the lower catchment of the two rivers are also a major threat. hese can also be a reason for the poor ish abundance and diversity observed. he introduced species Oreochromis mossambicus and Gambusia affinis will feed on the larvae of the migratory species which must use the river as their migration path. he team was greeted with a bundle of Mozambique Tilapia (O. mossabicus) upon our arrival at the village (Plate 21). l he other primary threat noted was the algae bloom on the lower catchment of the river (Plate 22). his is indicative of a high level of nutrient A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Freshwater ish and water quality of two catchments in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji input which is likely a result of livestock, piggeries and drain outs from nearby plantations. his is also harmful to freshwater biodiversity by reducing the quality of the water by afecting levels of dissolved oxygen, water temperature and pH. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS l hese two river systems in the Nakauvadra Range are in relatively poor condition in terms of ecological functioning and do not support healthy populations of native ishes. Sensitive endemic species are absent. Both of the upper catchment areas, however, retain quite good water quality because of intact forest and steeper, undeveloped topography. he general poor status of ishes in these rivers is due to poorly managed subsistence agriculture in the lower catchments, human settlement waste, overishing and destructive ishing practices. Catchment level management and rehabilitation should be undertaken especially in the lower catchments in order to restore some of the ecosystem function of these rivers and in turn increase the migratory capacity to the upper catchments. Some potential options for assisting in catchment rehabilitation are: ➢ ➢ biodiversity. l A concerted efort should be made to prevent the introduction of any exotic aquatic fauna to the upper sections these rivers. Any introduction will likely further erode the ecological function of these waterways. Stocking of native species (e.g. Gudgeons) could be considered as well as integrated irrigation/aquaculture of prawns (Macrobrachium sp). REFERENCES Atherton, J., D. Olson, L. Farley L. and I. Qauqau. 2005. Fiji watersheds at risk: watershed assessment for healthy reefs and isheries. Wildlife Conservation Society, Suva, Fiji. Canonico, G. C., A. Arthington, J. K. McCrary, and M. L. hieme. 2005. he efects of introduced tilapias on native biodiversity. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 15: 463–483. Jenkins, A. P. 2005. A preliminary study of freshwater fauna and water quality of Kubuna River and tributaries with recommendations for conservation action. Wetlands International – Oceania. John Gorton Building, Canberra, ACT 2601. Keith, P. 2003. Biology and ecology of amphidromous Gobiidae of the Indo-Paciic and the Caribbean regions. J. Fish Biol. 63: 831-847. community-based replanting of bufer zones particularly in mid-catchment areas adjacent to subsistence agriculture and road crossing areas; village level waste and water management plans (e.g. construction of ecological or compost toilets, livestock waste areas, minimize livestock traversing waterways). l Forests in the upper catchments of the two rivers, Vunilaci and Vuniqesa should be retained as protected areas. Generally, high water quality within the area is indicative of the remaining tract of native forest. his type of forested upper catchment is increasingly rare in Fiji and the Paciic and would serve the area well as a repository of potable water and unique terrestrial A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 91 Chapter 10 Cultural Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Sepeti Matararaba and Elia Nakoro SUMMARY During the course of the survey, an annotated ield map of signiicant cultural sites was constructed to identify and map sites of historical and cultural signiicance in the Nakauvadra Range. Our resulting maps generally depicted that resting spots or stop-over spots were found high up in the forest and close to mountain peaks. Fortiied settlements in the form of ring-ditches and stone walls were evident further up into the forest and closer to water sources. Also observed were mound features used as native land boundaries showing land holding units amongst the diferent yavusa or clans during Rt. Sukuna’s presence in the Veitarogi Vanua around the early 1950s. INTRODUCTION he Nakauvadra Range in the province of Ra is renowned locally as a signiicant cultural site with many links to legendary tales of Fiji’s colorful past. Having being dubbed the “highway” for many of Fiji’s ancestors across Viti Levu in the days when modern forms of transportation were unheard of, the Nakauvadra Range is rich in evidence of settlements and historical events that have been reinforced by oral traditions passed down by elders and scripted accounts from the Vola Vivigi or “blue book” containing descriptions of historical events that took place along the range. Although very rugged and diicult to access, the inhabitants of the Nakauvadra forest probably chose to construct their settlements on high altitude to better protect them from raging enemies. Our primary aim was to identify and map sites of cultural signiicance in the Nakauvadra Range. Below is an account of the diferent sites of cultural signiicance found in order of visit during the survey. METHODS he Fiji Museum-Archaeology Department assessed most of the archaeological/historical sites during the irst week of the survey (Map 10 for site locations). he second week was spent mainly focusing on the collection of oral histories and general knowledge about the Nakauvadra Range from the people of Vunisea village. 92 A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Cultural Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji RESULTS Vunirautoba Rock Shelter his site was approximately 412 m a.s.l. (GARMIN GPSmap 76CSx) and was assumed to only have been used as a place of rest due to its small size and constricted space (Plate 23). here was also no evidence of cooking as pottery shards and shell middens were not found. Oso-nai-vua Rock Shelter (Plates 24,25) his site was approximately 505 m southwest of the Vunirautoba rock shelter. he meaning behind the name of the rock shelter is related from the shape of the rock arch where directly translated- oso means stuck and vua is burden. Myth claims that anyone who is heavily burdened will not be able to enter the arched feature of the rear rock face of the site. he front face of the rock approximately 10 m in height providing exceptional shelter for resting. he side of the rock reveals evidence of a ire place. his site has been carefully selected as it is located close to water source. Binibini (Putuputu) qele/vatu (Plate 26) Binibini qele/vatu are earth or stone mounds made for physical markers showing divisions of traditional land owning units of blocks of land according to yavusa or clan. he demarcation of land was carried out by the late Rt. Sukuna and the landowners in the 1940’s when he was the Chief Native Lands Commissioner. Information regarding the rightful owners of blocks of land on either sides of the marker can be obtained from the Native Lands Commission in Suva. Nasovu rock shelter (Plate 27) Situated approximately 386 m south of Vunirautoba, the Nasovu rock shelter is at an elevation of 416 m. he massive site has signiicant evidence of habitation in the form of scattered pottery shards and shell middens (Plate 52). he pottery pieces had designs on them and according to the pottery sequence of Fiji is in the fourth stage which is the Vuda phase circa 700-500 BP (refer to the appendices for pottery images). Asenauluna rock shelter (Plate 28) Asenauluna site is located south-southeast downstream on Nabiya Creek from Camp 1. At an elevation of 337 m, the huge rock provides shelter to those that use the forest to hunt, gather wild crops and a resting place for those en-route to neighboring villages towards Vatukacevaceva. In the 1940s the rock shelter provided refuge for a nursing mother and her daughter. he baby was born and spent more than four nights at the rock shelter nursing with her mother until she was healthy enough to journey back to Vunisea village about 7.5 km downstream where traditional ceremonies celebrating the arrival of the new born and also marking her four nights (vakabogiva) took place. We retrieved pottery shards, shell middens and a bottle (believed to be quite old) from the site (Plate 48). he shards fall in the Vuda phase (700-500 BP) of the Fiji pottery sequence. Wainibelo rock shelter (Plate 29) his rock shelter is an ideal resting spot with quite a large spatial area compared to other sites. Located just a few metres away from Asenauluna site, its elevation is 302 m with the Nabiya Creek running behind it. Findings from the site include decorated pottery shards of around the same year range as the other sites, the fourth phase of the Fiji pottery sequence, the Vuda phase (Plate 51). Marika’s site (Plate 30) his site was discovered by Marika Tuiwawa and his group during their botanical surveys. Human inluence was obvious at this lattened platform where the side of a hill has been dug out and packed down. It was in the shape of a semi circle approximately 25 m long and 20 m wide. he site could have been inhabited as there is evidence of a rock formation- possibly remains of a house mound. Hilda’s site (Plate 31) his site was discovered by the entomology group and is named after the group leader, Hilda WaqaSakiti. Situated about 5 min west of Camp 1, Hilda’s site has the remains of a house mound with stone surroundings raised about 60 cm from ground level. he mound was about 15 m long and 10 m wide with stones partially displaced. Walking upstream, Hilda’s site is located on the left bank of the Nabiya Creek. Typical of a settlement is the planting of food trees such as breadfruit. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 93 Chapter 10 Belo’s rock shelter (Plate 32) Similarly, this small rock shelter was discovered by one of the guides named Belo. Rising to about 4 m Belo’s rock shelter contained evidence of scattered decorated pottery shards from the Vuda phase, shell middens and a ire place. he rock shelter was situated right beside Hilda’s house mound. Motoriki Hill fortiication (Plates 33, 34) his hill fort was one of the best remains of cultural features sighted during the trip. Evidence of a deep ring ditch more then 1 m in height enveloped the settlement. Running parallel to the inner edge of the ditch was an intact stone wall. Guard points made especially for watchmen on duty were also visible. Inside the settlement are remains of house mounds, some are still intact (refer to the settlement map). Vunivauvau old village site (Plate 35) According to the guides, Vunivauvau was the former village site before the present Vunisea village was occupied. It is located about 500 m away from the Vunisea village. he site is exceptionally big and some mounds were not mapped due to thick vegetation cover. Matarau rock shelter (Plate 36) his rock shelter was located northwest of Vunisea village. Found at the site was cultural evidence similar to other sites - scattered pottery shards and shells (Plate 47). Like other sites, the shards date back to the Vuda phase. he site was at an altitude of 179 m with a small creek running beside it. Bua old village (Plates 37, 38) Approximately 800 m northward from Matarau rock shelter was Bua old village also known as Namasaga. House mounds with huge stone foundations were neatly aligned in this big settlement and were highly raised of the ground. he site was scattered with food trees such as breadfruit and Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagiferus). Located 180 m away from the lower village was the fortiied settlement (upper Bua) on a peak of about 334 m. he settlement had two sets of stone walls both measuring to a height of close to 2 m. At the entrance were two pillar stones and further in were house mounds with stone foundations raised to about 60-70 cm. With the exception of the entrance side of the site, all sides were rocky and steep making 94 access diicult. Numerous pottery shards were found at each site (Plates 49, 50). Uluda historical sites he following sites are related to legends of Lutunasobasoba and Degei’s migration. he sites can be found from the ridge or the Tualeita to the side of the range that faces the village of Vatukacevaceva. Plate 39 shows the historical Rogorogoivuda at the point Uluda. According to legends the Rogorogoivuda, is a lali beaten to call all the gods from all over Fiji to attend a meeting. Tobu ni sili nodrau na ciri (Plate 40) his was the bathing spot for the two brothers, Cirinakaumoli and Kalusabaria. Legend depicts that the grandsons of Lutunasobasoba were responsible for the killing of Turukawa, a famous rooster (cock) that was coveted and taken by the snake god Degei. As a result, war broke out as the brothers killed most of Degei’s men and were later banished by their father. he brothers had their houses built close to their bathing spot. One of their house foundations had more then 10 standing stones (Plate 41). Conua (Plate 42) Located about 500 m northwest from the brothers’ home in a place called Conua is a rain tree that is said to be where the rooster sat and crowed each morning to wake Degei. Vatukacevaceva old village site (Plate 43) On the far end of the range from Uluda peak, about 548 m a.s.l., is the site of the Vatukacevaceva old village. he site was fortiied with a clif face and stone walls and contained evidence of scattered pottery shards and shells (Plate 53). Navolau sites II (Plate 44) he Navoka rock shelter was about 721 m from the village of Navolau II. he massive site rises to over 10 m in height and has evidence of pottery shards from around the Vuda phase and shells strewn across the shelter. Delaisuvani Peak (Plate 45) On the peak were the remains of what is believed to be either a lookout point or a sacred worshipping ground fortiied with a ring ditch. Currently, the Fiji Sugar Corporation has one of its radio transmitters A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Cultural Survey of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji erected right on top of the only house mound on the site. Beside the house mound was a pile of stones in a conical structure about 2-3 m in height. he diameter of the base is around 11 m while the top is about 4 m wide. According to Giford (1951), in his article “Fijian Mythology, Legends, and Archaeology” an informant said that Degei and Lebanacagi had ten children and their fourth son was Rasuwaki. Degei, realizing that he had a lot of male ofspring, decided to send them to diferent parts of Viti Levu, so they would not quarrel. Rasuwaki was sent to Suvani, a village near Navolau, Ra Province. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS he sites visited during this initial expedition were in well preserved conditions barely modiied by human interaction. he department wishes to recommend: l hat proper documentation of the survey and oral history be undertaken to avoid the loss of traditional knowledge about these sites. l he old village site belonging to the people of Vunisea displaying a formation of fortiication wall that is rather unique, and which the Fiji Museum Archaeology Department has never come across before, be cleaned and maintained by the local villagers (Plate 38). l he Fiji Museum Archaeology Department be included in any future surveys of the area to allow for the completion of the survey in the overlooked areas within the Biodiversity survey region and to revisit Navolau II and record its oral histories. REFERENCES Fischel, W. J. 1951. Semitic and Oriental Studies. University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Vol. XI. University of California Press, Los Angeles. Giford, E. W. 1951. Fijian Mythology, Legends, and Archaeology. In: Fischel, W. J. (ed.) Semitic and Oriental Studies. University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Vol. XI. University of California Press, Los Angeles. A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji 95 Appendix 1 Checklist of the vascular plant flora of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler The following checklist of native and naturalised seed plants is based upon collections made during a survey from November 18-26, 2008. The checklist is divided into Dicotyledonae, Monocotyledonae, and Gymnosperms, in that order. Within each group the species are listed in alphabetically arranged families, and alphabetically within the families. Footnotes: (1) Under “Status,” A = ancient introduction, E = endemic, I = indigenous, but not endemic, and X = exotic, not native; (2) Under “Life Form,” E = epiphyte, H = terrestrial herb, L = liana (woody climber), S = shrub, T = tree, and V = herbaceous vine; (3) W=Whistler, T= Tuiwawa, and R= Rounds; and (4) Voucher specimen number or collection number denoted as Tuiwawa (four digits) for plant voucher specimens collected for the SPRH. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Species Status1 Life Fijian and Source3 Voucher4 2 Author(s) Form English Names --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DICOTYLEDONAE ACANTHACEAE (Acanthus Family) Blechum pyramidatum (Lam.) Urb. X H medra sucu na beka, W, T Graptophyllum insularum I S W. T (A. Gray) A.C. Sm. Pseuderanthemum laxiflorum E S drividrivi W, T 4298 (A. Gray) Hubbard ALANGIACEAE (Alangium Family) Alangium vitiense E (A. Gray) Baill. ex Harms AMARANTHACEAE (Amaranth Family) Achyranthes aspera L. X Amaranthus viridus L. A ANACARDIACEAE (Cashew Family) Buchanania attenuata A.C. Smith E Mangifera indica L. X Pleiogynium timoriense (DC.) I Leenh. Rhus taitensis Guillemin I Semecarpus vitiensis (A. Gray) I Engl. Spondias dulcis Sol. ex Parkinson A ANNONACEAE (Custard Apple Family) Cananga odorata A (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms. Cyathocalyx insularis A.C. Sm. E Richella monosperma A. Gray E Xylpia pacifica A.C. Sm. E T H H doko ni sau W, T Tubua, Chauraya T T T T T Kaukaro mango, T T Manawi kaukaro W, T W, T T Wi T T makosoi; ylang-ylang W, T T T T T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T 4310 4319 4415 4281 4327 APOCYNACEAE (Dog-bane Family) Alstonia montana Turrill Alstonia vitiensis Seem. Alyxia linearifolia A.C. Sm. Alyxia stellata (Forst.) R. & S. Cerbera cf. odollam Gaertn. Ervatamia obtusiscula Markgraf Pagiantha thurstonii (Horne ex Baker) A.C. Sm. E E E I I I E T T S/L S/L T S T sorua sorua vono vono matailevu rewa, vasa rewa vueti naitasiri vueti naitaseri T T W, T W, T W, T W, T W E E E I E T T T T T sole sole sole danidani sole T W, T T W W, T ASCLEPIADACEAE (Milkweed Family) Hoya australis R. Br. ex Traill I Hoya vitiensis Seem. E Tylophora sp. E V V V bitabita, wa tabua drau bibi W, T W, T W, T ASTERACEAE (Aster Family) Ageratum conyzoides L. X H W, T X H ageratum; usuusu vanua; botebotekoro hairy horseweed; W X H thickhead W, T X H tobacco weed, tavakoni veikau T ARALIACEAE (Panax Family) Plerandra pickeringii A. Gray Polyscias cortica Gibbs Polyscias joskei Gibbs Polyscias multijuga (A. Gray) Harms Schefflera vitiensis (A. Gray) Seem. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Elephantopus mollis H.B.K. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Schultz-Bip. Mikania micrantha H.B.K. X H X V Tridax procumbens L. X H Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. X H BARRINGTONIACEAE (Barringtonia Family) Barringtonia sp. I T BIGNONIACEAE (Bignonia Family) Spathodea campanulata Beauv. X BURSERACEAE (Bursera Family) Canarium harveyi Seem. Canarium vitiense A. Gray Haplolobus floribundus (K. Schum.) Lam I I I T T T T 4400 4282, 4311 4438 W mile-a-minute; wa bosucu coat buttons; tabu keka kaukamea W, T Tivi T African tulip tree; pasui W, T qauqau? kaunicina W, T W, T W, T W, T T 4261 94 CARICACEAE (Papaya Family) Carica papaya L. X T pawpaw; weleti W, T CASSYTHACEAE (Cassytha Family) Cassytha filiformis L. I V cassytha; Wailutumailagi T CLUSIACEAE (Mangosteen Family) Calophyllum cerasiferum Vesque Calophyllum neo-ebudicum Guill. Calophyllum vitiense Turrill Garcinia myrtifolia A.C. Sm. Garcinia pseudoguttifera Seem. Garcinia sessilis (Forst.) Seem. Garcinia vitiensis (A. Gray) Seem. T` T T T T T T E I E I I E E CONVOLVULACEAE (Morning-Glory Family) Ipomoea indica (Burm.) Merr. I V Merremia peltata (L.) Merr. I V CONNARACEAE (Connarus Family) Connarus pickeringii A. Gray E Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston I CUCURBITACEAE (Melon Family) Neoalsomitra integrifoliola I (Cogn.) Hutchinson Zehneria mucronata (Bl.) Miq. I L L damanu dilodilo damanu laubu suweru, sarosaro W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T wa bulu? wa bula W, T T wa tobili toi W, T W V 4416 4340, 4420 4279 4419 4384 W, T V wa madrali? W E E T T vure, vota vure T W, T 4448 DEGENERIACEAE (Degeneria Family) Degeneria roseiflora J. M. Miller E T masiratu, vavaloa W, T 4287 EBENACEAE (Ebony Family) Diospyros sp. T kauloa W, T 4286 mea tivi na ka W, T 4392 W, T 4293, 4405 W, T W, T W, T W, T 4277 4428 W, T W, T 4453 4316 CUNONIACEAE (Cunonia Family) Geissois ternata A. Gray Weinmannia affinis A. Gray I? ELAEOCARPACEAE (Elaeocarpus Family) Elaeocarpus chelonimorphus E T Gillespie Elaeocarpus chionanthus A.C. Sm. E T EUPHORBIACEAE (Spurge Family) Acalypha insulana Muell. Arg. Acalypha repanda Muell. Arg. Acalypha rivularis Seem. Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. E I E A T/S T/S S T Baccaurea pulvinata A.C. Sm. Baccaurea seemannii E I T ` T bukubogi?, kalabuci kalabuci candlenut; lauci, sikeci midra midra 95 (Muell. Arg) Muell. Arg. Baccaurea stylaris Muell. Arg. Bischofia javanica Bl. Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. E I X T T H E T/S X E S T I E I T T T E T E T I T velutu, gadoa, mavu, davo?, mama T X X I T H S/L red bead tree peanut grass yellow nickers, soni T W W, T X X E X A X X V H T L S H H Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze Inocarpus fagiferus (Parkinson) Fosberg Kingiodendron polycarpum B.L. Burtt Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. I I A L T T E X T T/S Mimosa pudica L. X H Mucuna platyphylla A. Gray Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi Samanea saman Jacq. I A X l V T Serianthes melanesica Fosb. Strongyledon lucidus (Forst. f.) Seem. I I T V Claoxylon vitiense Gillespie (Muell. Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Juss. Endospermum macrophyllum (Muell. Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. Glochidion concolor Muell. Arg. Glochidion seemannii Muell. Arg. Homalanthus nutans (Forst. f.) Guillem. Macaranga graeffeana Pax & Hoffm. Macaranga magna Turrill 4313 Macaranga seemannii (Muell. Arg.) Muell. Arg. FABACEAE (Legume Family) Adenanthera pavonine L. Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. Caesalpina major (Medik.) Dandy & Exell Centrosema pubescens Benth. Chamaecrista nictitans Moench. Cynometra insularis A.C. Sm. Derris malaccensis (Benth.) Prain Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. Java cedar; togotogo, garden spurge; de ni ose, ovuka? malenivia W, T W, T W, T T variegated croton kai sesevu, vulavula, kauvula molau. molau yalewa molau yalewa tautau, tadano W, T W, T velutu, velodo, mavu velutu T moivi, cibicibi derris; duva wakutu, senivakacegu three-flowered beggarweed; borotimi water vine, walai vesi ivi Moivi leucaena; vaivai du, vaivai ni Vavalagi sensitive plant, co gadrogadro wa tikori kudzu, yaka, wa yaka monkeypod; vaivai ni vavalagi, vaivai, vaivai ni Viti wa yaka? 4346 T T W, T 4263 W, T W W, T W, T W, T W W W 4270 W, T T T W, T T W, T W, T W W, T T W 4323 96 FLACOURTIACEAE (Flacourtia Family) Casearia richii A. Gray E Flacourtia vitiensis (Seem.) A.C. Sm. E S T galo, qalo? midra W, T W, T GENTIANACEAE (Gentian Family) Fagraea berteroana A. Gray ex Benth. Fagraea gracilipes A. Gray I I T T bua, bua ni Viti W, T W, T GOODENIACEAE (Goodenia Family) Scaevola floribunda A. Gray E S vevedu ni vanua?, W, T HERNANDIACEAE (Hernandia Family) Hernandia olivacea Gillespie E T wairiki?, makoloa W, T 4403 ICACINACEAE (Icacina Family) Medusanthera vitiensis Seem. E T baka?, duvu W, T 4385, 4435 LAMIACEAE (Mint Family) Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. X H mint weed; tamoli ni vavalagi W, T 4265 E T macou W, T 4271 I T damabi? W, T 4324 LEEACEAE (Leea Family) Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. I T/S ruma? W LOBELIACEAE (Lobelia Family) Lobelia zeylanica L. X H E T I E E? T T T LAURACEAE (Laurel Family) Cinnamomum fitianum (Meisn.) A.C. Sm. Endiandra elaeocarpa Gillespie LOGANIACEAE (Strychnine Family) Geniostoma cf. clavigerum A.C. Sm. & Stone Geniostoma rupestre Forst. Neuburgia collina (A.C. Sm.) A.C. Sm. Neuburgia corynocarpa (A. Gray) Leenh. LORANTHACEAE (Mistletoe Family) Decaisnina forsteriana I (J.A. & J.H. Schultes) Barlow LYTHRACEAE (Lythrum Family) Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) Macbr. MALVACEAE (Mallow Family) Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Sida rhombifolia L. 4383 4309 W buibuita, boiboida buibiuta, boiboida bo bo, bo loa, bulei T T W T S island mistletoe; mokarewa? W, T X H tar weed W, T I X T H beach hibiscus; vau, broom weed; qatima W, T T A S/H broomweed; W, T 4347 97 Urena lobata L. A S/H MELASTOMATACEAE (Melastoma Family) Astronidium robustum (Seem.) A.C. Sm. E T Astronidium tomentosum E T (Seem.) A.C. Sm. Clidemia hirta (L.) Don X S qavi ni lawa hibiscus bur; qatima W, T W, T W, T Koster’s curse; mara na bulumakau, kau rasiga kabikabi 4386 4414 W, T Medinilla heterophyllya A. Gray E L Medinilla cf. ovalifolia (A. Gray) A.C. Sm. Melastoma denticulatum Labill. E L I S dradrasiga, kaunisiga E E T T kautoa T sorovulu, sauira, W, T mala bausoro, kautoa W, T 4487 mala, bausomi sorovulu, tarawau W, T kei rakaka false sandlewood; W, T 4348 cevua, sevua MELIACEAE (Mahogany Family) Aglaia elegans Gillespie Dysoxylum gillespieanum A.C. Sm. W, T W, T 4333, 4395, 4413 4337 W, T 4269 Dysoxylum lenticellare Gillespie Dysoxylum richii (A. Gray) C. DC. E T E T Vavaea amicorum Benth. I T MONIMIACEAE (Monimia Family) Hedycarya dorsteniodes A. Gray I T se ni kai dromodromo? W, T MORACEAE (Mulberry Family) Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosb. Ficus bambusifolia Seem. A E T S W, T T Ficus fulvo-pilosa Summerh. E T Ficus greenwoodii Summerh. Ficus obliqua Forst. Ficus prichardii Seem. Ficus smithii Horne ex Baker Ficus tinctoria Forst. f. E I E I I T T T T T Ficus vitiensis Seem. Malaisia cf. scandens (Lour.) Planch. Streblus anthropophagorum (Seem.) Corner E I I T/S L T breadfruit: bamboo-leaved fig; loselose ni wai? viriviri, masimasi, ai masi, masi masimasi, masi, nunu baka masimasi, kabi baka, masimasi? dyer’s fig; baka?, nunu, baka, masi Fiji fig; kaba, lololo wa masi? kau damu, male T T MYRISTICACEAE (Nutmeg Family) Myristica castaneifolia A. Gray E Myristica chartacea Gillespie E T T 4470 W, T 4315 W, T T W, T W, T 4322, 4439 W, T W, T W, T 4328, 4369 4362 4299 98 MYRSINACEAE (Myrsine Family) Embelia gracilis Turrill Maesa tabacifolia Mez Rapanea cf. hadrocarpa A.C. Sm. Rapanea myricifolia (A. Gray) Mez Tapeinosperma E I E I E S/L T T T T E T/S niqwa, nuqanuqa W, T I X E T T/S T/S vuga guava; quwawa yasiyasi, yasi W, T W, T W, T 4402 I T yasiyasi, yasi W, T 4329, 4455 E T yasi W, T I T/S yasi, yasiyasi W, T 4457, 4280 4345 4326 A T Malay apple; kavika W, T E T yasi ni wai, W, T NYCTAGINACEAE (Four-O’clock Family) Pisonia umbellifera (Forst.) Seem. I T roro T OLACACEAE (Olax Family) Anacolosa lutea Gillespie kai lo? W, T 4331, 4484, W, T 4437 wa vatu W, T 4370 willow primrose; riro?, wa ni kisi W, T qaradila, Wa madra? T W MYRTACEAE (Myrtle Family) Decaspermum vitiense (A. Gray) Niedenzu Metrosoderos collina (Forst.) A. Gray Psidium guajava L. Syzygium cf. amicorum. (A. Gray) C. Muell. Syzygium cf. curvistylum (Gillespie) Merr. & Perry Syzygium diffusum (Turrill) Merr. & Perry Syzygium gracilipes (A. Gray) Merr. & Perry Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry Syzygium seemannianum Merr. & Perry OLEACEAE (Olive Family) Chionanthus vitiensis (Seem.) A.C. Sm. Jasminum simplicifolium Forst. f. I T I T I L ONAGRACEAE (Evening-Primrose Family) Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven X H PASSIFLORACEAE (Passion-Flower Family) Passiflora foetida L. X V Passiflora suberosa L. X V PEPEROMIACEAE (Peperomia Family) Peperomia lasiostigma C. DC. E Peperomia sp.. E? PIPERACEAE (Pepper Family) Macropiper puberulum Benth. f. Macropiper timothianum (A.C. Sm.) A.C. Sm. I I W W, T W, T T T H H S S yaqoyaqona beta, yaqoyaqona 4366, 4397 4342 4421 4364 W, T T 4306 W, T T 4296 99 Piper aduncum L. X S W, T L yaqoyaqona, onalulu, wanonalulu, yagonani onalulu, wa kikokiko Piper insectifugum C. DC. E PITTOSPORACEAE (Pittosporum Family) Pittosporum arborescens A. Gray I Pittosporum rhytidocarpum A. Gray E T T wa tuva, duva kalou tuva qwa?, duva gaga T T POLYGALACEAE (Polygala Family) Polygala paniculata L. X H tavitaviraki, yavete?, ai roi ni turasa W, T PROTEACEAE (Protea Family) Turrillia vitiensis (Turrill) A.C. Sm. E T kai sivisivi, sivia W, T RHAMNACEAE (Buckthorn Family) Alphitonia franguloides A. Gray E Alphitonia zizyphoides I (Spreng.) A. Gray T T doi, doi damu doi W, T T RHIZOPHORACEAE (Mangrove Family) E Crossostylis harveyi Benth. Crossostylis richii (A. Gray) A.C. Sm. E T T tiri vanua W, T W, T ROSACEAE (Rose Family) Rubus moluccanus L. I L/S wild raspberry; Wasorisori W, T E T/S E E X I T/S T/S T/S T/S E E I E E E E I I I T/S T/S H S S S L T/S T/S T E I E I E S/H S/H S/H T/S L/S RUBIACEAE (Coffee Family) Airosperma trichotomum (Gillespie) A.C. Sm. Calycosia macrocyatha Fosberg Calycosia petiolata A. Gray Coffea arabica L. Cyclophyllum barbatum (Forst. f.) A.C. Sm. & S. Darwin Dolicholobium oblongifolium A. Gray Gardenia sp. Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnston Hydnophytum grandiflorum Becc. Ixora amplexicaulis Gillespie Ixora somosomaensis Gillespie Morinda bucidifolia A. Gray Morinda citrifolia L. Mussaenda raiateensis J.W. Moore Neonauclea forsteri (Seem. ex Havil.) Merr. Ophiorrhiza laxa A. Gray Ophiorrhiza leptantha A. Gray Ophiorrhiza peploides A. Gray Psychotria oncocarpa K. Schum. Psychotria tephrosantha A. Gray T 4486 4440 4334 W kau yalewa Arabian coffee; kove se ni ciriwai? drega totodro ni veiukai kura bovo, bobo yabo, vacea, vutoro, bo drau rau ni ulu lera W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W W, T W, T 4417 4360, 4365 4383 4335 4475, 4443 T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T 4288 4273 4336 4274 4387, 4412 100 Psydrax odorata (Forst. f.) A.C. Sm. & S. Darwin Readea membranacea Gillespie Spermacoce assurgens Ruiz & Pavon Tarenna sambucina (Forst. f.) Dur. ex Drake Timonius affinis A. Gray Xanthophytum calycinum (A. Gray) Benth. & Hook. I T/S E X T H I T/S I E T/S T/S A T Melicope culcullata (Gillespie) A.C. Sm. E T Micromelum minutum (Forst. f.) Seem. I T/S W, T I E T/S T W, T W, T 4436 4284, 4291 E T/S malawa ci T 4320, 4349 I S/T T I T native hop bush; osi, osi yalewa marasa, kau loa E I T T wiwi, manawi tawa, dawa W, T W, T E T E T SAURAUIACEAE (Saurauria Family) Saurauria rubicunda (A. Gray) Seem. E SIMAROUBACEAE (Quassia Family) Amaroria soulameoides A. Gray E RUTACEAE (Rue Family) Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. SAPINDACEAE (Soapberry Family) Allophylus timoriensis (DC.) Bl. Cupaniopsis concolor (Gillespie) Van der Ham Cupaniopsis leptobotrys (A. Gray) Radlk. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Elattostachys falcata (A. Gray) Radlk. Koelreuteria elegans(Seem.) A.C. Sm. Pometia pinnata Forst. SAPOTACEAE (Sapodilla Family) Planchonella cf. smithii (van Royen) A.C. Sm. Planchonella vitiensis Gillespie SOLANACEAE (Nightshade Family) Solanum torvum Sw. X STERCULIACEAE (Cocoa Family) Firmiana diversifolia A. Gray E Heritiera ornithocephala Kosterm. I Melochia vitiensis A. Gray E W, T 4466 W, T 4292, buttonweed bobo taqwane, vakacaredavui dogo ni vanua pomelo, shaddock; moli kana rautolu, drautolu, tokatolu tokatolu W, T W, T W, T 4446 4451 W, T W, T W, T 4379 W, T 4285 bulubulu?, sarosaro W, T 4283 T mimila W, T T vasa ni veikau T S prickly solanum; soni, W, T T T T vau ceva rogi, rosarosa, savai, vau damu T T W, T 4371 101 Pterocymbium oceanicum A.C. Sm. E T ma, yanita T SYMPLOCACEAE (Symplocos Family) Symplocos leptophylla (Brand) Turrill I T roro W, T THYMELAEACEAE (Mezereum Family) Phaleria glabra (Turrill) Domke I Wikstroemia foetida L. f. I T/S T/S sinu mudu, masi, mataivi W, T W, T I I T/S T nici, siti W, T W, T E T I X T S mako qatima W, T W, T I I E T/S T T qwalau, drou qwalau, drou T W T I T/S matauloboroko? W, T I I T/S T Dendrocnide vitiensis (Seem.) Chew Elatostema australe (Wedd.) Hall. f. Elatostema filicoides (Seem.) Schroeter Elatostema nemorosum Seem. Leucosyke corymbulosa (Wedd.) Wedd. E E E T H H E I H T/S Pipturus argenteus (Forst. f.) Wedd. Procis pedunculata (Forst.) Wedd. I T/S I H E L Lantana camara L. Premna protusa A.C. Sm. & S. Darwin Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl Vitex trifolia L. X E X S T/S S/H I S Viticipremna vitilevuensis Munir E T TILIACEAE (Linden Family) Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr. Grewia crenata (Forst.) Schinz & Guillaumin Trichospermum calyculatum (Seem.) Burret Trichospermum richii (A. Gray) Seem. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. ULMACEAE (Elm Family) Parasponia andersoni (Planch.) Planch. Trema cannabina Lour. Celtis vitiensis A.C. Sm. URTICACEAE (Nettle Family) Cypholophus heterophyllus (Wedd.) Wedd. Cypholophus macrocephalus Wedd. Dendrocnide harveyi (Seem.) Chew VERBENACEAE (Verbena Family) Faradaya ovalifolia (A. Gray) Seem. 4410 4447 W, T stinging-nettle tree; salato, kaukata salato, salasalato beta beta beta matauloboroko, dranigata, matadra, karokaro koro roga wa lo?, wa korovudi Wa vudi lantana; lanitana premna; araro, yaro blue rat tail; se ni karakarawa blue vitex; drala, drala kaka, vulokaka bo cawa bo sawa, 4264 4289 W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T 4480 W, T W, T 4477 4290 W, T 4338, 4473 W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T 4268 4376 102 drautolu VISCACEAE (Mistletoe Family) Korthalsella horneana van Tieghem I S VITACEAE (Grape Family) Cayratia seemanniana A.C. Sm. E V W, T 4393 MONOCOTYLEDONAE AGAVACEAE (Century-Plant Family) Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A Chev. I? Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. X S H ti-plant; vasili, qai W, T Mauritius hemp; natali W, T A A H H W, T W, T X A I E H H V V X H E E E T T T saqiwa, niu sawa BROMELIACEAE (Bromeliad Family) Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. X H pineapple; W, T COMMELINACEAE (Dayflower Family) Tradescantia zebrina Bosse X H wandering Jew W, T X I? A H H H codamu W, T W, T W, T 4266 I I H H W, T W, T 4275 4276 I? I H H o manini? W W, T A A V V uvi ni veikau bitter yam; kaile T W, T ARACEAE (Aroid Family) Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicholson Caladium bicolor (Ait.) Ventenat Colocasia esculenta L. Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. Rhaphidophora spuria (Schott) Nicolson Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott ARECACEAE (Palm Family) Clinostigma exo Veitchia joannis H. Wendl. Veitchia vitiensis (H. Wendl.) Moore CYPERACEAE (Sedge Family) Fimbristylis dichotoma L. Fimbristylis ovata (Burm. f.) Kern Kyllinga nemoralis (Forst.) Dandy ex Hutchinson Hypoletrum nemorum (Vahl.) Spreng. Mapania parvibracteata (C. B. Clarke) T. Koyama Mariscus cf. cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl Scleria polycarpa Boeck. DIOSCOREACEAE (Yam Family) Dioscorea alata L. Dioscorea bulbifera L. caladium; taro; dalo taro vine; yalu yalu, yalu tamaia, yalu taqwane, yalu tannia; doko ni tana, dalo ni tana o seni, vuti sa? W, T W, T W, T W, T T T W, T W, T 4445 103 Dioscorea nummularia Lam. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. spiny yam; tivoli five-fingered yam; T kaili tokatolu T FLAGELLARIACEAE (Flagellaria Family) Flagellaria gigantea Hook. f. I H ula W, T HELICONIACEAE (Heliconia Family) Heliconia paka A.C. Sm. E H wild heliconia; vava W, T I E misi?, misimisi? W, T A T banana, plantain; W, T I I I I I I E I I E E E E E H H E E E E E E I I I I E E H E E H I I E E E H I I E I I I I E E E E E H E E LILIACEAE (Lily Family) Collospermum montanum (Seem.) Skottsb. MUSACEAE (Banana Family) Musa x paradisiaca L. ORCHIDACEAE (Orchid Family) Acanthephippium splendidum J.J. Sm. Appendicula cf. bracteosa Rchb. f. Bulbophyllum ebulbe Schltr. Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Bl. Cryptostylis arachnites (Bl.) Hassk. Dendrobium biflorum (Forst. f.) Sw. Dendrobium kraenzlinii L.O. Williams Dendrobium masarangense Schltr. Dendrobium platygastrium Rchb. f. Dendrobium prasinum Lindl. Diplocaulobium tipuliferum (Rchb. f.) Kraenzl. Eria rostriflora Rchb. f. Goodyera rubicunda (Bl.) Lindl. Liparis condylobulbon Rchb. f. Liparis cf. orbiculata L.O. Willliams Malaxis cf. vitiensis (Rolfe) L.O. Williams Oberonia equitans (Forst. f.) Mutel Oberonia heliophila Rchb. f. Peristylus aliformis? (C. Schweinf.) Renz & Vodonaivalu Phreatia myosurus (Forst. f.) Ames Phreatia micrantha (A. Rich.) Schltr. Pseuderia platyphylla L. O. Williams Robiquetia bertholdii (Rchb. f.) Schltr. Schoenorchis micrantha Reinw. ex Bl., Spathoglottis pacifica Rchb. f. Tropidia effusa Rchb. f. Taenophyllum sp. A A PANDANACEAE (Screwpine Family) Freycinetia caudata Hemsl. E Freycinetia impavida I V V L L niuniu viavia ni vikaikai W, T W W, T W, T W, T W, T W W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W W, T W W, T viavia ni vikaikai vavara, varavara wa me wa me 4352, 4353 4454 4450 4312 4372 4463 4474 4359 4307 4464 4373 4444 W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T T 4478 4431 4423 4294 4425 W, T T 4427 4321 104 (Hombron & Jacquinot) Stone Freycinetia pritchardii Seemann Freycinetia urvilleana Hombron & Jacquinot Pandanus cf. joskei Horne PHILESIACEAE (Philesia Family) Geitonoplesium cymosum (R. Br.) A. Cunn. ex Hook. I I I L L l wa me wa me kai W, T T rau vadra W, T scrambling lily; wa bitubitu W, T 4441 POACEAE (Grass Family) Bambusa cf. multiplex (Lour.) Raeuschel ex J.A. &J.H. Schultes Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendl. Centosteca lappacea (L.) Desv. Coix lacryma-jobi L. Dichanthium caricosum (L.) A. Camus Imperata conferta (Presl) Ohwi Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warb. Panicum maximum Jacq. Paspalum conjugatum Berg. X T dwarf bamboo W, T X I A X I I T H H H H H W. T W, T T W 4267 T W X X H H Paspalum orbiculare Forst. I H Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) J.A. & J.H. Schultes Schizostachyum glaucifolium (Rupr.) Munro Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv. X H bamboo o voti, luna Job’s tears; sila Nadi bluegrass o tua?, gi sword grass; sina, gasau Guinea grass; qini T T-grass; kasei, kase, karasi ni danudanu, Dutch millet; o voti, codurolevu mission grass; I H X H Sporobolus cf.jacquemontii Kunth Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash X X H H native bamboo; bitu, W, T bitu dina Indian dropseed; T o vatu? wire grass; o vatu? W, T vetiver grass W, T SMILACACEAE (Smilax Family) Smilax vitiensis (Seem.) A. DC. I V warusi W, T ZINGIBERACEAE (Ginger Family) Alpinia boia Seem. Alpinia cf. parksii (Gillespie) A.C. Sm. Curcuma longa L. Hedychium sp. Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm. E E X X A H H H H H vava driu, boia W, T T W, T W, T W, T turmeric white/yellow ginger wild ginger; cago W W W, T GYMNOSPERMAE ARAUCARIACEAE (Norfolk-Island Pine Family) Agathis vitiensis (Seem.) E T Benth. & Hook. f. ex Drake CYCADACEAE (Cycad Family) Fiji kauri; dakua 4485 W, T 4262 4260 105 Cycas seemannii A. Braun I T GNETACEAE (Gnetum Family) Gnetum gnemon L. I T PODOCARPACEAE (Podocarp Family) Podocarpus affinis Seem. E Podocarpus neriifolius D. Don I T T logologo W, T W, T Kuasi, asibolo 4381 T W, T PTERIDOPHYTAE ADIANTACEAE (Maidenhair-Fern Family) Adiantum cf. hornei Baker E H Pteris ensiformis Burm. f. I H ASPIDIACEAE (Shield-Fern Family) Arachniodes aristata (Forst.) Tindale Pleocnemia cumingiana Presl Tectaria crenata Cav. Tectaria decurrens (Presl) Copel. Tectaria latifolia (Forst.) Copel. I I I I I H H H H H sword brake W W, T turalo, ota loa W W, T W, T W, T W, T ASPLENIACEAE (Asplenium Family) Asplenium amboinense Willd. I Asplenium australasicum Hook. I H/E H/E Asplenium bipinnatifidum Baker Asplenium cuneatum Lam. Asplenium excisum Presl Asplenium laserpitiifolium Lam. Asplenium nidus L. H E H E H/E bird’s-nest fern; T W, T W, T W, T W, T ATHYRIACEAE (Athyrium Family) Diplazium melanocaulon Brack. I Diplazium proliferum Kaulf I H H W, T W, T 4297 ota, lalabe, lalabi BLECHNACEAE (Blechnum Family) Blechnum orientale L. I H Blechnum vittatum Brack. I T W, T 4272 CYATHEACEAE (Tree-Fern Family) Culcita staminea (Labill.) Maxon Cyathea alta Copel. Cyathea hornei (Baker) Copel. ` Cyathea lunulata (Forst.) Copel. Dicksonia brackenridgei Mett. I I I I I H T T T H I I I I I DAVALLIACEAE (Leather-Fern Family) Arthropteris repens (Brack.) C. Christ I Davallia fejeensis Hook. E E/H E bird’s-nest fern; tevateva W, T W, T 4378, 4399 4308 Asiatic blechnum fern; barakoto vulo balabala tevateva tevateva? W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T 4434 4332 106 Davallia solida (Forst. f.) Sw. Humata heterophylla (Sm.) Desv. Humata polypodioides Brack. Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott Nephrolepis hirsutula (Forst. f.) Presl Nephrolepis tuberosa (Bory ex Willd.) Presl Leucostegia pallida (Mett.) Copel. Oleandra neriiformis Cav. Scyphularia pycnocarpa (Brack.) Copel. I I I I I I E/H E E E/H H E I I E E S E W, T digi sword fern; digi turalo sa DENNSTAEDTIACEAE (Dennstaedtia Family) I H Microlepia speluncae (L.) Moore Orthiopteris tenuis (Brack.) Brownlie I H GLEICHENIACEAE (Gleichenia Family) Dicranopteris linearis I (Burm.) Underwood H W, T W, T W, T W, T 4476 W, T W, T W, T 4389 W W false-staghorn fern; kavidi T GRAMMITIDACEAE (Grammitis Family) I E Ctenopteris contigua (Forst.) Holttum W, T HYMENOPHYLLACEAE (Filmy-Fern Family) Trichomanes apiifolium Presl I H Trichomanes boryanum Kuntze I H Trichomanes humile Forst. I E Trichomanes bipunctatum Poiret I E Trichomanes saxifragoides Presl I E Trichomanes tahitense Nad. I E W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T W, T HYPOLEPIDACEAE (Bracken-Fern Family) Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J. Sm. I H W, T LINDSAEACEAE (Lace-Fern Family) Lindsaea pacifica Kramer I W, T 4429 LOMARIOPSIDACEAE (Lomariopsis Family) Bolbitis palustris (Brack.) Hennipman I H Elaphoglossum milnei Krajina E E Lomagramma polyphylla Brack. I H/E Lomariopsis cf. brackenridgei Carr. I H/E W, T W, T W, T W, T 4449 4363 4368 LOXOGRAMMACEAE (Loxogramma Family) Loxogramme parksii Copel. I E W, T 4377 MARATTIACEAE (Marattia Family) Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. I Marattia smithii Mett. ex Kuhn I H H H king fern; bawale bawali W, T W, T 4461 107 OSMUNDACEAE (Osmunda Family) Leptopteris wilkesiana I (Brack.) C. Christ H W, T POLYPODIACEAE (Common-Fern Family) Belvisia mucronata (Fee) Copel. I E tevateva Dipteris conjugata Reinw. I H vulo masei Drynaria rigidula (Sw.) Beddome I E tevateva Phymatosorus nigrescens (Bl.) P. Serm. I E Phymatosorus grossus I H/E vativati, (Langsd. & Fisch.) Brownlie tevateva? Polypodium subauriculatum Bl. I E Pyrrosia adnascens (Sw.) Ching I E SCHIZAEACEAE (Schizaea Family) Lygodium reticulatum Schkuhr I Schizaea dichotoma (L.) J. Sm. I H H wasinasina THELYPTERIDACEAE (Downy-Woodfern Family) Christella harveyi (Mett.) Holttum I H digi Sphaerostephanos cf. invisus I H digi (Forst.) Holttum VITTARIACEAE (Ribbon-Fern Family) I Vaginularia angustissima (Brack.) Mett. Vittaria elongata Sw. I W, T 4302 W, T W, T W, T W, T 4303 W, T W, T W, T W E W E W, T 4278 4426 FERN ALLIES EQUISETACEAE (Horsetail Family) I Equisetum ramossisimum Desf. H LYCOPODIACEAE (Club-Moss Family) Lycopodium carinatum Desv. I Lycopodium cernuum L. I E H Lycopodium magnificum Brownlie E E club moss; momo ko riqua blue tassel fern Lyopodium foliosum Copel E E Lycopodium squarrosum Forst. f. Lycopodium subtrifoliatum Brownlie I E E E PSILOTACEAE (Psilotum Family) Psilotum nudum (L.) P. B. I E/H horsetail W, T W, T W, T 4459 T 4482 club moss W, T 4367 club moss club moss W, T W, T 4305 4462 W, T SELLAGINACEAE (Small-Clubmoss Family) Selaginella firmula A. Br. ex Kuhn I H W, T Selaginella viridangula Spring E H W, T 4300 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 108 Appendix 2 Tree plot data from the Nakauvadra Highlands, Ra Province, Fiji Marika Tuiwawa and Arthur Whistler Table 1. Lowland Rainforest Vegetation - Creek Flat Forest (320 m.a.s.l.). Plot 1, Camp 1. Species Endiandra elaeocarpa Dysoxylum sp. Kingiodendron polycarpum Gironniera celtidifolia Dillenia biflora Aleurites moluccana Elattostachys falcata Litsea sp. (cf. mellifera?) Myristica castaneifolia Parinari insularum Elaeocarpus sp. Dysoxylum richii Degeneria roseiflora Viticipremna vitilevuensis Buchanania sp. Macaranga sp. Pagiantha thurstonii Alangium vitiense Syzygium sp. (big leaf) Syzygium smithii Veitchia vitiensis Plerandra pickeringii Alphitonia franguloides Syzygium sp. (no. 6) Glochidion sp. Cynometra insularis Cupaniopsis concolor Palaquium porphyreum Ficus fulvo-pilosa Garcinia myrtifolia Premna protusa Baccaurea pulvinata Semecarpus vitiensis Terminalia sp. Planchonella sp. Dendrocnide vitiensis Elaeocarpus sp. no. 2 Endiandra sp. Syzygium malaccense Ficus cf. scabra Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Myristica chartacea No. of Trees 8 1 12 44 11 1 3 11 4 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 10 4 5 2 9 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 No.>15 cm 4 1 8 9 9 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Basal Area 8921 5942 5468 4603 3246 2550 2388 2357 2076 1888 1885 1820 1564 1451 907 793 786 719 587 510 496 447 415 415 380 375 355 314 204 161 154 127 113 113 112 88 38 38 28 28 28 28 Rel. Dom. 16% 11% 10% 8% 6% 5% 4% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 109 Species Syzygium cf. curvistylum Gnetum gnemon Totals No. of Trees 1 1 172 No.>15 cm 0 0 59 Basal Area 28 28 54,966 Rel. Dom. + + Table 2. Lowland Rainforest Vegetation - Slope Forest (320 m.a.s.l.). Plot 2, Camp 1 Species Aleurites moluccana Dillenia biflora Gironniera celtidifolia Syzygium cf. curvistylum Endospermum macrophyllum Dysoxylum richii Myristica castaneifolia Kingiodendron polycarpum Cerbera cf. odollam Veitchia vitiensis Garcinia myrtifolia Aglaia sp. Parinari insularum Endiandra sp.? Veitchia joannis Annonaceae sp. Pagiantha thurstonii Canarium vitiensis Elattostachys falcata Macaranga sp. Palaquium vitilevuense Glochidion sp. Cryptocarya sp.? Endiandra elaeocarpa Palaquium porphyreum Ficus cf. fulvo-pilosa Anacolosa lutea Semecarpus vitiensis Gnetum gnemon Litsea sp. (no. 2) Syzygium sp. (no. 2) Cyathea alta Litsea cf. mellifera Antidesma sp.? Dendrocnide vitiensis Baccaurea sp. Planchonella sp. Schefflera vitiensis Cynometra insularis Reedia membranacea Total No. of Trees 3 7 38 6 3 2 12 4 2 18 9 5 3 2 1 1 8 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 6 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 2 2 168 No. > 15 cm 3 6 4 4 2 2 3 1 2 0 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 Basal area 5804 3895 3736 3401 3268 2139 2001 1479 1363 1131 988 959 902 871 707 660 624 595 572 568 531 415 415 362 346 295 290 201 177 171 154 148 133 133 133 126 104 95 64 54 40,110 Rel. Dom. 15% 10% 10% 9% 8% 5% 5% 4% 3% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% + + + + + + + + + + + + 110 Table 3. Lowland Rainforest Vegetation - Slope Forest (Secondary) (320 m). Plot 3, Camp 2 Species Gironniera celtidifolia Glochidion sp. Dysoxylum richii Elattostachys falcata Dysoxylum sp. Bischofia javanica Macaranga sp. Alangium vitiense Pagiantha thurstonii Myristica castaneifolia Syzygium malaccense Cupaniopsis concolor Ficus sp. (oblique base) Planchonella cf. vitiensis Saurauria rubicunda Dillenia biflora Plerandra pickeringii Semecarpus vitiensis Cyathea hornei Citrus maxima Litsea cf. mellifera Cyathea lunulata Ficus sp. Endiandra elaeocarpa Garcinia pseudoguttifera Syzygium sp. (big leaf) Ficus vitiensis Aglaia sp. Melochia cf. vitiensis Calycosia petiolata Total No. of Trees 72 9 13 4 2 2 1 4 2 10 3 4 1 4 4 1 1 2 8 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 161 No. > 15 cm 8 9 8 4 2 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 Basal Area 5759 5235 4980 4323 2987 2846 1661 1399 1055 1038 1009 872 754 537 498 314 254 246 232 201 201 154 133 133 92 76 58 50 38 28 36,963 Rel. Dom. 16% 14% 13% 12% 8% 8% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% + + + + + + + + + 111 Table 4. Lowland Rainforest Vegetation - Ridge Forest (440 m). Plot 4, Camp 2 Species Parinari insularum Dysoxylum richii Syzygium cf. curvistylum Pagiantha thurstonii Myristica castaneifolia Dillenia biflora Endiandra elaeocarpa Elaeocarpus cf. chelonimorphus Veitchia vitiensis Pterocymbium oceanicum Hernandia olivacea Planchonella vitiensis Heritiera ornithocephala Endiandra sp. Garcinia myrtifolia Gironniera celtidifolia Vavaea amicorum Gnetum gnemon Cyathea lunulata Indet. (cupule) Elattostachys falcata Syzygium sp. (big leaf) Canarium harveyi Cyathea alta Dysoxylum sp. Geisssois ternata Kingiodendron polycarpum Baccaurea pulvinata Elaeocarpus sp. (narrow leaves) 1 Ficus sp. (small leaf) Harpullia arborea Aglaia sp. Palaquium sp. Viticipremna vitilevuensis Pittosporum rhytidocarpum Garcinia pseudoguttifera Cyathocalyx sp. Syzygium sp. (“dravu”) Litsea cf. mellifera Calycosia petiolata Saurauria rubicunda Garcinia sp. (no. 4) Cyathea hornei Haplolobus floribundus Melochia cf. vitiensis Alangium vitiense Ficus fulvo-pilosa No. of Trees 20 4 2 11 11 7 3 3 35 2 4 6 2 11 3 16 3 8 2 3 1 1 3 7 1 1 3 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 2 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 No. > 15 cm 11 3 1 6 5 3 1 3 0 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Basal Area 9466 4534 3310 2462 2193 1870 1727 1704 1690 1671 1502 1154 1130 917 874 654 624 584 579 547 415 415 374 339 314 283 368 255 254 227 215 201 154 133 129 128 126 108 102 98 95 95 94 79 64 50 38 Rel. Dom. 21% 10% 7% 6% 5% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 3% 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 112 Species Inocarpus fagifer Syzygium smithii Myristica chartacea Total No. of Trees 1 1 1 213 No. > 15 cm 0 0 0 53 Basal Area 38 28 28 44,339 Rel. Dom. + + + Table 5. Lowland Rainforest Vegetation – Dakua Forest (Primary)(425 m). Plot 5, Camp 1 Species Agathis macrophylla Geissois ternata Metrosideros collina Myristica castaneifolia Elattostachys falcata Trichospermum calyculatum Dysoxylum sp. Plerandra vitiensis Aglaia sp. Planchonella vitiensis Baccaurea pulvinata Veitchia vitiensis Dillenia biflora Pterocymbium oceanicum Endiandra elaeocarpa Rapanea sp.? Plerandra pickeringii Syzygium sp. (no. 3) Planchonella sp. Endospermum macrophyllum Alangium vitiense Terminalia sp. Myristica chartacea Pagiantha thurstonii Cyathea lunulata Syzygium sp. (no. 4) Elaeocarpus sp. Hernandia olivacea Parinari insularum Cynometra insularis Cryptocarya sp. Indet. (cupule) Gironniera celtidifolia Pleiogynium timoriense Gnetum gnemon Cyathea hornei Indet. cf. Casearia Litsea cf. mellifera Cyathocalyx sp.? Kingiodendron polycarpum No. of Trees 2 2 4 9 6 1 7 1 8 2 24 21 6 2 6 7 3 4 7 1 5 2 4 4 2 1 2 1 5 3 2 2 2 4 6 7 3 1 1 3 No. > 15 cm 2 2 4 3 4 1 4 1 4 2 2 0 3 2 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Basal Area 18278 4238 3826 2998 2885 2375 2087 1963 1698 1674 1537 1467 1420 1031 748 660 650 627 598 572 524 523 441 372 367 314 274 254 245 242 233 229 197 189 182 172 135 133 133 120 Rel. Dom. 32% 7% 7% 5% 5% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 113 Species Garcinia myrtifolia Planchonella sp. (no. 1) Calophyllum vitiense Buchanania attenuata Anacolosa lutea Crossostylis seemannianus Syzygium sp. no. 5 Calophyllum neo-ebudicum Turrillia vitiensis Decaspermum vitiense Dendrocnide vitiense Psychotria sp. Syzygium sp. (no. 6) Macaranga sp. Indet. (aqueous veins) Geniostoma sp. Total No. of Trees 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 162 No. > 15 cm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 Basal Area 84 70 66 64 64 50 50 50 50 50 28 28 28 20 20 20 56,683 Rel. Dom. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 114 Appendix 3 Geographical positions of sites surveyed for herpetofauna in the Nakauvadra Range from 18th – 27th November, 2008. Nunia Thomas Site Name and description Survey Date 1. Track 1: Vatukacevaceva to Base Camp 1 2. Va’ava’a Ridge 18/11/08 Local Name (recorded during survey) Vatukacevaceva Latitude/Longitude 18/11/08 Va’ava’a 3. (a) Diurnal Survey: Volivoli Creek Downstream of Base Camp 1 3. (b) Nocturnal Survey: Volivoli Creek – 20m downstream of Base camp 1 3. (c ) Diurnal Survey – Upstream of Base Camp 1, along Nabiya Stream 3. (d) Nocturnal Survey – Upstream of Base Camp 1, along Toluwalu Stream 3 (e). Nocturnal Survey – Upstream of Base Camp 1, along Nabiya Stream 4. Wainibe Stream– 20 – 30 minutes upstream of Vunisea Village 5. (a) Vuniqesa Stream – Nocturnal Survey: Adjacent to Base camp 2. 5. (b) Vuniqesa Stream – Diurnal Survey: Around Base camp 2 5. (c) Vuniqesa Stream – Nocturnal Survey: Downstream and behind Base camp 2 6. (a) Ridge on track from Base Camp 2 to Narara with vegetation plot 6. (b) Ridge on track from Base Camp 2 to Narara 7. Track 3: Track from Base Camp 2 to upstream Vavituka 8. Uluisupani – Diurnal survey: from Navolau #2 Village to FSC beacon on Uluisuvani 19/11/08 Vunilaci Stream 19/11/08 Vunilaci Stream 170 27’ 24.64 S 1780 05’ 55.68 E 20/11/08 Nabiya 170 28’ 119.61 S 1780 05’ 25.5 E 20/11/08 - 170 27’ 21.62 S 1780 05’ 55.37 E 20/11/08 Nabiya 22/11/08 Wainibe Stream 170 29’ 5.57 S 1780 08’ 15.66 E 22/11/08 Vuniqesa Stream 23/11/08 Vuniqesa Stream 23/11/08 Vuniqesa Stream and dry tributary 170 27’ 46.48 S 1780 07’ 43.94 E 170 27’ 48.88 S 1780 07’ 44.63 E 170 27’ 48.88 S 1780 07’ 44.63 E 170 25’ 24.38 S 1780 05’ 25.5 E 170 26’ 23.36 S 1780 05’ 43.16 E 170 28’ 119.61 S 1780 06’ 35.38 E 170 27’ 23.37 S 1780 07’ 54.18 E 25/11/08 26/11/08 24/11/08 27/11/08 Upper Vuniqesa Stream Uluisuvani 170 26’ 50.82 S 1780 07’ 33.43 E 170 22’ 11.59 S 1780 13’ 37.58 E 115 Appendix 4 Details of individual frogs captured during herpetological surveys of the Nakauvadra Range Nunia Thomas Frog # SVL (mm) Weight (g) P. vitianus NT 2 18.70 1 1 NT 12 19.00 <0.5 1 NT 1 21.10 1 1 NT 20 25.30 0.5 1 NT 3 26.80 2 1 NT 9 28.80 2.5 1 NT 7 28.90 2 1 NT 18* 29.00 2.5 1 NT 11 32.60 4 1 NT 6 33.30 2 1 NT 21 33.70 2.5 NT 5 39.50 4 1 NT 13 39.80 6 1 NT 8 41.60 5 1 NT 16 42.90 7.9 1 NT 15 48.40 10 1 NT 17 56.60 15.5 1 NT 19 57.50 17.5 1 NT 14 60.30 22.5 1 NT 4 61.30 21.5 1 NT 18 62.80 25 1 NT 22 67.40 33 1 NT 10 76.90 41.9 1 * indicates frogs that were measured but not toe-clipped. P. vitiensis 1 116 Appendix 5 Freshwater invertebrate taxa found at each site during surveys of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Gilianne Brodie Taxa INSECTA Ephemeroptera Psuedocloeon sp.1 (early stage small grey) Psuedocleon sp. 1 (later stage large dark) Coleoptera Gyrinidae Hempitera Gerridae Limnogynous sp 1 Limnogynous sp 2 (smaller distinct marks on dorsum) Odonata Anisoptera sp. 1 (large dark) Anisoptera sp. 2 (small pale) Zygoptera Nesobasis spp. Lepidoptera Pyralidae Nymphula ? Common Name Local Name Mayfly Mayfly (larvae) Mayfly (larvae) Beetle Whirligig beetle (adult) True Bugs Water strider (adult) Water strider (adult) Functional Type Stream Site 1 Volivoli A Stream Site 2 * Volivoli B Stream Site 3 Natoluwalu Stream Site 4 Nabiya Other Total grazers 124 451 2 3 - 580 [USP5647] [USP5648] [USP5649] [USP5650] - - 156 2 4 grazers predator 33 121 [USP5651] [USP5652] - - 2 [USP5653] 2 - [USP5654] larvae predators larvae predators 6 5 [USP5656] [USP5657] - 2 [USP5655] - - - 11 - - - 2 [USP5658] Dragonfly (larvae) Dragonfly (larvae) Damselfly (larvae) caterpillar Moth (larva) Cece wai predator 1 - - [USP5659] Cece wai predator 1 - [USP5661] predator shredder 1 2 [USP5660] 3 2 [USP5662] [USP5663] 51 8 18 3 [USP5664] [USP5665] [USP5666] [USP5667] 10 5 10 1 [USP5668] [USP5669] [USP5670] [USP5671] 6 80 26 117 Taxa Orphoptera Gryliidae Common Name True crickets (late nymph) Local Name Functional Type Stream Site 1 Stream Site 2 Stream Site 3 Stream Site 4 Other Total shredder/ predator - - - 1 - 1 - 73 - 11 - 3 - 40 - 23 [USP5672] Trichoptera Hydropsychidae Abacaria fijiensis (dark front plates, hairy posterior) Philopotamida sp. 1 (elongate pale, no hairs on posterior) Polycentropodidae sp. (hairy body) Hydroptilidae (Oxyethira sp.) (clear triangular case) Odontoceridae (Tusk like sand case, often dark) Trichoptera sp. 1 Tusk like case (pale) Trichoptera sp. 2 (elongate smooth case) Trichoptera sp. 3 (elongate grainy case) Diptera Simuliidae Similium jolli Similium jolli Caddisfly Filter feeders or shredders Net-spinning caddisfly (larvae) Soft-lipped caddisfly (larvae) caddisfly (larvae) caddisfly (larvae) 14 12 32 [USP5673] [USP5674] [USP5675] [USP5676] 1 2 3 5 [USP5677] [USP5678] [USP5679] [USP5680] - - - 3 [USP5681] - caddisfly (larvae) caddisfly (larvae) caddisfly (larvae) caddisfly (larvae) Blackfly (pupa) Blackfly (larvae) 15 29 4 7 [USP5682] [USP5683] [USP5684] 1 21 - 1 [USP5685] [USP5686] 1 - [USP5687] - - - 1 - - 17 [USP5688] 1 2 14 [USP5689] [USP5690] [USP5691] 32 - - - 32 - - - 1 - - - 5 - [USP5692] - 1 [USP5693] filter feeder - 5 [USP5694] 118 Taxa Common Name Culicidae Aedes sp. Chironimidae Mosquito (pupa) Midges (larvae) Fly (adult) Diptera sp. 1 Local Name Functional Type Stream Site 1 - Stream Site 2 Stream Site 3 Stream Site 4 Other Total 1 - - - 1 32 - 38 - - 1 [USP5695] grazers 1 5 [USP5696] [USP5697] - - - [USP5698] 1 [USP5698] Unknown Insect Pupa Insect pupa 1 (brown bubble like case) Insect pupa 2 (tube with net-like mottled pattern) Insect pupa 3 (segmented, mottled brown) Insect pupa 4 (clear 4sided case) Insect pupa 5 (dark segmented body) Insect pupa 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 - 2 [USP5699] Insect pupa 1 [USP5700] Insect pupa - [USP5701] Insect pupa 1 - - [USP5702] Insect pupa [USP5703] - - - - 1 2 2 - - - 4 [USP5705] [USP5706] 90 1 [USP5704] MOLLUSCA Gastropoda Melanoides lutosa Melanoides tuberculata Fluviopupa ? sp. Freshwater snail grazers cici ciri 9 28 22 26 5 [USP5707] [USP5708] [USP5709] [USP5710] [USP5711] - 6 - 2 - 2 1 3 [USP5712] [USP5713] [USP5714] - - CRUSTACEA Ostracoda sp. - 2 [USP5800] 119 Taxa Common Name Local Name Functional Type Stream Site 1 Stream Site 2 Stream Site 3 Stream Site 4 Macrobrachium cf. latidactylus long arm prawn Ura or urasa shredder & predator - - - - Caridina cf nudirostris shrimp filter feeder Other Total 2 (site 2) 2 [USP5801] 7 2 8 1 [USP5802] [USP5803] [USP5804] [USP5805] - 18 - 43 PLATYHELMINTHES Tricladia sp. 1 (Dugesiidae ?) flat worm Tricladida sp. 2 flatworm predator predator 22 1 18 2 [USP5806] [USP5807] [USP5808] [USP5809] - - - 1 1 [USP5810] NEMATOMORPHA Paragordius? sp. Horse hair worm (adult) wa-lutu-mailagi parasitic larvae - predator - - - - 1 1 [USP5811] ARACHNIDA Araneae sp. 1 (1arge – elongate body) Araneae sp. 2 (small, banded legs, network on abdomen) Araneae sp. 3 (Hydrachnellidae ?) (larger globular body, hairy) Spider (adult) 1 - - - 1 - - - 2 1 - - 1 - - 3 - 25 10 1318 [USP5812] Spider (adult) predator - Water Spider (adult) predator - 2 [USP5813] - [USP5814] ANNELIDA Segmented Oligochaeta sp. 1 worm (large with 2 distinct parts) Oligochaeta sp. 2 Segmented (small simple) worm TOTALS 290 [USP no] = USP Collections acquisition numbers. * Only half of 100 m section sampled. 3 - [USP5815] 10 11 4 [USP5816] [USP5817] [USP5818] 755 130 133 120 Appendix 6 Sites of interest for terrestrial insects in the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Hilda Waqa-Sakiti No. ento 1 Name Nesobasis angolicolis Melanesobasis sp. Latitude (S) 17º26'15"S Longitude (E) 178º05'36"E Elevation (m) 406 ento 2 ento 3 Papilio schemltzi Leaf litter 1 17º26'19"S 17º26'27"S 178º05'42"E 178º05'45"E 476 541 ento 4 17º27'22"S 178º05'54"E 329 ento 5 ento 6 ento 7 ento 8 ento 9 ento 10 Base camp 1 Phasmotaenia inermis (syn. Hermarchus) Liocheles australasiae (scorpion) Light trap 1 Leaf litter 2 Leaf litter 3 Light trap 2 Tree beating 1 Tree beating 2 17º27'20"S 17º27'29"S 17º27'25"S 17º27'21"S 17º27'20"S 17º27'21"S 178º05'52"E 178º05'35"E 178º05'55"E 178º05'56"E 178º05'56"E 178º05'56"E 327 503 328 308 327 309 ento 11 Nisyrus spinulosus (synonym to Cotylosoma) ento 12 ento 13 ento 14 ento 15 ento 16 P. schmeltzi Base camp 2 Buprestidae (jewel beetle) Light trap 3 Light trap 4 Leaf litter 4 17º27'29"S 178º05'11"E 424 17º27'29"S 17º27'46"S 178º05'57"E 178º07'46"E 330 275 Comments dry creek, 2º forest edge 1st sighting of P. schemltzi, host plant Micromellum minitum found within study area mid-altitude, on gentle slope near confluence of Volivoli and Nabiya creek adjacent to Nabiya Creek mid-altitude, on very steep slope low altitude leaf litter sampling found within dakua (Agathis macrophylla) plot camouflaged by lichens on the tree bark numerous sightings of P.scheltzi and Danaus plexipus A rarely encountered beetle family 17º27'20"S 17º27'47"S 17º27'47"S 178º05'52"E 178º07'43"E 178º07'45"E 327 249 253 121 Appendix 7 Water quality and habitat characteristics of sampling sites in Vunilaci and Vuniqesa Rivers, Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji Aaron Jenkins Flow rate (m/s) Alt. (m) Temp (Co) Sal (ppt) pH DO (mg/L) Cond (µS) Turbidity (NTUs) 17°28’19.00”S 178°06’36.57”E 0.3m/s 203 24.4 0.0 7.6 50.3% 129.4 <10 Site 2 MidVunilaci River 17°27’39.25”S 178°06’13.86”E 0.2m/s 235 24.0 0.0 7.2 57.6% 126.7 <10 Site 3 Upper Vunilaci River 17°27’17.67”S 178°05’32.45”E 0.3m/s 280 23.5 0.0 7.6 60.3% 82.4 <10 Site 4 Upper Vunilaci River 17°27’43.71”S 178°05’16.10”E 0.5m/s 285 23.8 0.0 7.3 73.4% 97.4 <10 Site 5 Upper Vuniqesa River 17°27’29.63”S 178°07’44.50”E 0.2m/s 280 24.2 0.0 7.35 81.4% 91.1 <10 Site 6 Upper Vuniqesa River 17°27’19.06”S 178°07’24.19”E 0.3m/s 285 24.0 0.0 7.23 82.6% 81.5 <10 Site 7 Headwater Vuniqesa River 17°26’38.42”S 178°08’03.60”E 0.6m/s 289 23.5 0.0 7.1 73.8% 97.3 <10 Site Latitude/ Longitude Site 1 MidVunilaci River A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Nakauvadra Range, Ra Province, Fiji _________________________________________ 5. Participants and Contributors _________________________________________ 7. Organizational Proiles _________________________________________ 10. Acknowledgements _________________________________________ 11. Report at a Glance _________________________________________ 14. Executive Summary _________________________________________ Conservation Internation Conservation International 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500 Arlington, VA 22202 C/O - National Trut of Fiji Building 3 Ma’afu Street, Suva, FIJI 23. Maps _________________________________________ 30. Images _________________________________________ 36. Chapters _________________________________________ 96. Appendices _________________________________________ With generous support from:

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