Phasmids as Pests of Agriculture and Forestry
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Introductory presentation on stick insects (Insecta: Phasmida) as pests of agriculture and forestry, with examples from the USA, Australia, Fiji and China. Cite as: Baker, Edward (2015): Phasmids as Pests of Agriculture and Forestry. figshare. http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1472902
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Phasmids as Pests of Agriculture and Forestry
- 1. Ed Baker PHASMIDS AS PESTS OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
- 2. USA (1870s-1970s) Diapheromera femorata AUSTRALIA (1880s-1980s) Didymuria violescens Podacanthus wilkinsoni Anchiale austrotessalata FIJI (1920s-Present) Graeffea crouanii CHINA (1980s-Present) Various spp. MAJOR INFESTATIONS
- 4. “…eggs and fecal pellets are dropped to the ground in great numbers, producing a pattering sound, like rain, accompanied by a peculiar seething sound of thousands of jaws chewing the leaves.” - Helfer (1963) REVIEW OF DIAPHEROMERA
- 5. REVIEW OF DIAPHEROMERA New York Outbreak (1870s)
- 6. Wisconsin Outbreak (1959-60s) “Within seconds after a person stopped under or near a tree, walkingsticks dropped onto and crawled upon his body so that even to an experienced entomologist it was an uncomfortable, creepy feeling.” Oatman (1965) REVIEW OF DIAPHEROMERA
- 7. Michigan Outbreak (1930s) REVIEW OF DIAPHEROMERA
- 8. Michigan Outbreak (1930s) REVIEW OF DIAPHEROMERA
- 9. REVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN SPECIES
- 10. DIDYMURIA VIOLESCENS Above: Female, David Rentz Right: Male, Paul Brock Phasmida Species File
- 11. PODACANTHUS WILKINSONI Right: Female, Kennedy Harris Below: Male (LT,PLT), ANIC (Paul Brock) Phasmida Species File
- 12. ANCHIALE AUSTROTESSELLATA Male, NHM, Paul Brock Phasmida Species File
- 13. REVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN SPECIES Habitat, Paul Brock Phasmida Species File
- 14. REVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN SPECIES Campbell and Hadlington (1967)
- 15. Readshaw (1965) A Theory of Phasmatid Outbreak Release Campbell (1974) Factors Limiting the Distribution and Abudance of the Three Species of Phasmatids (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae) Which Occur in Plague Numbers in forests of South-Eastern Australia Readshaw (1990) Phasmatid Outbreaks Revisiting CLASSIC LITERATURE
- 16. Outbreaks are infrequent Semi-voltine life cycle Inability of predators and parasitoids to contain infestation High fecundity Slow migration READSHAW’S CRITERIA
- 17. KENTROMORPHISM Individuals reared at different densities have different colouration and morphology Potentially analogous (homologous?) to density dependence in plaguing Orthoptera?
- 19. How general is this theory? Take the model of Australian outbreaks Apply it to other outbreaks See what breaks TESTING THE THEORY OF PHASMATID OUTBREAK RELEASE
- 20. Expanded by Campbell to be require an absence of forest catastrophe (mainly fire) for a period of 10-80 years No forest fires associated with D. femorata outbreaks… … but they always seem to occur in plantations or second growth forest Conclusion: Outbreaks are linked to habitat disturbance, whether that be natural (forest fire) or anthropogenic (plantations) OUTBREAKS ARE INFREQUENT
- 21. Readshaw predicted this was important, as infestation levels only occur every other year, preventing a rapid escalation in predators/parasites D. femorata is generally uni-voltine. Some Chinese pest species are up to tri-voltine. Conclusion: May be important in specific in cases, but more generally phasmid outbreaks happen without this condition. SEMI-VOLTINE LIFE CYCLE
- 22. Mymecomimesis semiglabra (Readshaw, 1965) PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS
- 23. Mymecomimesis semiglabra (Readshaw, 1965) PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS
- 24. Myna bird, introduced to Fiji to control Graeffea crouanii Gerald McCormack PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS
- 25. Exova tunana, parasitoid of Eurycantha insularis Kimsey, Dewhurst & Nyaure (2013) PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS
- 26. If there is an infestation – the stick insects are not being predated or parasitised at a sufficient rate to control the outbreak. True by definition. PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS
- 27. All species involved lay many times more eggs than would be needed if no predators or parasitoids were present. This is true for all Phasmid species. Facilities outbreaks when population rise in phasmids is not immediately followed by a rise in predators and parasites. Need to look at why this occurs. Given what else we know habitat disturbance is likely (forest fires; altering of the forest ecosystem; movement of phasmids into plantations) HIGH FECUNDITY
- 28. Diapheromera is wingless – movement confined to walking. Gravid females of Australian species can glide – limited flight. Reports show that lighter males disperse more rapidly than females. Concentration of eggs beneath females. Outbreaks generally occur in a very confined area, that spreads over several years and may merge with others to form widespread damage. SLOW MIGRATION
- 29. Not known in any phasmids besides the Australian ones mentioned by Key. The Australian species come from forest that is subject to natural forest fires, this could be an evolutionary adaption to the effects of these. KENTROMORPHISM
- 30. Disturbance of forest (either natural or anthropogenic) Reduction in controlling species allows phasmid population to rise more rapidly than their predators High fecundity and slow migration creates intense population rises on limited scales (at least initially) Rejected ideas: Semi-voltine life cycle Kentromorphism GENERAL THEORY OF OUTBREAKS
- 31. GRAEFFEA CROUANII CINHP, Gerald McCormack
- 32. GRAEFFEA CROUANII Damage to coconut palm, Deesh, Swamy & Khan (2013)
- 33. GRAEFFEA CROUANII Damage to coconut palm, Deesh, Swamy & Khan (2013)
- 34. BACULONISTRIA ALBA Xiang Guowei in Hennemann et al (2008) Defoliation of Cupressus funebris FIGURES 7–9: Live insects 7. Baculonistria alba (Chen & He, 1990). on Cupressus funebris, Chon 8. Parapachymorpha sp. , Chongqing. (© Zhang Weiwei) TERM OF USE This pdf is provided by Magnolia Press for private Commercial sale or deposition in a public library o